Сategory of number of nouns

Сategory of number of nouns

Introduction

Number is the grammatical category of the noun which shows whether we speak of one thing or of more than one. The category of number is expressed by the opposition of the plural form of the noun to its singular form.

Accordingly, there are two numbers: the singular and the plural.

The problem of category of number of nouns is very essential nowadays. Russian and English languages have different grammatical, syntactical and phonetic forms of expression. These languages have nouns which are used only in the singular, only in the plural and both in singular and plural. A lot of people in the process of communication make mistakes because they don’t know rules and laws necessary for exact case.

The goal of the present work is to study the category of number of English nouns and compare it with the Russian ones.

Objectives of the present work:

1.                  To consider the category of number of nouns

2.                  To study different types of number

3.                  To analyze the formation and meaning of number

4.                  To study different cases of usage of category of number of nouns

5.                  To consider the development of plural forms in connection with a change of meaning of the noun

6.                  To study Russian category of number of nouns, different cases of usage

Practical significance of this work is that it can be used in educational establishments, at classes on theoretical and practical grammar. This work can be useful for students, studying English language.

The term-paper consists of content, introduction, three main chapters, conclusion, bibliography and appendix.

1.                 The Problem of Category of Number in Modern English

1.1            The Category of Number of Nouns

The category of number is expressed by the opposition of the plural form of the noun to its singular form. The semantic difference of the oppositional members of the category of number in many linguistic works is treated traditionally: the meaning of the singular is interpretation as «one» and the meaning of the plural as «many» (more than one).

As the traditional interpretation of the singular and the plural members does not work in many cases, recently the categorical meaning of the plural has been reconsidered and now it is interpreted as the denotation of «the potentially dismembering reflection of the structure of the referent».

The categorical opposition of number is subjected to the process of oppositional reduction. Neutralization takes place when countable nouns begin to function as Singularia Tantum nouns, denoting in such cases either abstract ideas or some mass material, e.g. on my birthday we always have goose; or when countable nouns are used in the function of the Absolute Plural: the board are not unanimous on the question. A stylistically marked transposition is achieved by the use of the descriptive uncountable plural (the fruits of the toil are not always visible) and the «repetition plural» (car after car rushed past me). In Modern English the form of the singular of nouns is a bare stem without any flexion or with zero inflexion. Nouns in plural are characterized by ending «-s (-es)».

The meaning of number expresses by grammatical forms is extremely generalized. Concrete meanings of nouns can be expressed lexically with the help of numerals and grammatically through grammatical meaning of inflexions. A zero inflexion indicates one thing and the grammatical form with an opposite inflexion indicates more than one things.

The presence in language of such ways of expressing a generalized meaning of number must be considered as a result of a process of abstraction formed by the human thought for a long period of time. [1]

Modern English like most other languages distinguishes two numbers: singular and plural. The meaning of singular and plural seems to be self-explanatory, that is the opposition: one – more than one. The essential meaning of the category (in nouns) is not that of quantity, but of discreteness. Concrete meanings of nouns can be expressed lexically with the help of numerals and grammatically through grammatical meaning of inflexions. A zero inflexion indicates one thing and the grammatical form with an opposite inflexion indicates more than one things.

1.2 Types of Number

a) Singular versus plural. In most languages with grammatical number, nouns, and sometimes other parts of speech, have two forms, the singular, for one instance of a concept, and the plural, for more than one instance. Usually, the singular is the unmarked form of a word, and the plural is obtained by inflecting the singular.

b) Collective versus singulative. Some languages differentiate between a basic form, the collective, which is indifferent in respect to number, and a more complicated derived form for single entities, the singulative. A rough example in English is «snowflake», which may be considered a singulative form of «snow» (although English has no productive process of forming singulative nouns, and no singulative modifiers).

c) Dual number. The distinction between a «singular» number (one) and a «plural» number (more than one) found in English is not the only possible classification. Another one is «singular» (one), «dual» (two) and «plural» (more than two). Dual number existed in Proto-Indo-European. Many more modern Indo-European languages show residual traces of the dual, as in the English distinctions both versus all and better versus best.

d) Trial number. The trial number is a grammatical number referring to 'three items', in contrast to 'singular' (one item), 'dual' (two items), and 'plural' (four or more items). There is a hierarchy between number categories: No language distinguishes a trial unless having a dual, and no language has dual without a plural. English, along with the other Germanic languages and most Romance languages, uses the plural.

e) Distributive plural. Distributive plural number, for many instances viewed as independent individuals (e.g. in Navajo).

In most languages, the singular is formally unmarked, whereas the plural is marked in some way. Other languages, most notably the Bantu languages, mark both the singular and the plural, for instance Swahili (see example above). The third logical possibility, rarely found in languages, is unmarked plural contrasting with marked singular.

Elements marking number may appear on nouns and pronouns in dependent-marking languages or on verbs and adjectives in head-marking languages.

There are several types of number: singular versus plural, collective versus singulativ, dual number, trial number and distributive plural. But Modern English like most other languages distinguishes only two numbers: singular and plural

1.3            Meaning and Formation of Number

1.       In Modern English the singular form of the nouns is a bare stem with a zero-inflexion (нулевая флексия): book, boy, girl.

The plural is formed by the inflexion – (e) s [z, s, iz]: boy – boys, book – books, box – boxes.

Compare the Russian noun стол (столы) which also has a zero-inflexion in the nominative case of the singular, with the noun река (реки), which has a positive inflexion in the nominative case of the singular as well as of the plural.

The inflexion – (e) s is a modification of the Old English plural inflexion – as. In Old English there were several ways of forming the plural; the – as inflexion which was used only with masculine nouns, later on in its modified form (-as>-es>-s) became the general inflexion of the plural of nouns.

The plural inflexion is pronounced [iz] after voiced consonants and vowels: cabs, raids, tables, pens, factories, tractors; [s] after voiceless consonants: books, pilots, pipes; [iz] after sibilants: classes, bushes, branches, boxes.

Note. – Nouns ending in a mute – e preceded by a sibilant, in spelling – se, ce, – ze, – (d) ge, add the inflexion – s [iz] horse – horses; price – prices; size – sizes; bridge – bridges: village – villages.

2.       With some nouns the final voiceless consonant is changed into a corresponding voiced consonant before the inflexion – es [z] is added. To this group belong:

a)       Nouns ending in – fe or – f [f]. The f is changed into v (consonant interchange), and the inflexion – es [z] is added: knife–knives; shelf – shelves; wife – wives.

Note. – Some nouns ending in – f or – ff, simply add – s [s] in the plural: roof – roofs; chief – chiefs; handkerchief – handkerchiefs; cliff – cliffs; cuff – cuffs; muff – muffs.

The following nouns have double forms: hoof – hoofs, hooves; scarf – scarfs, scarves.

b)       Some nouns ending in – th [θ], change the θ into [3]: mouth [mauθ] – mouths [mauθz]; path [pa:θ] – paths [pa:θz]; bath [ba:θ] – baths [ba:3z].

c)       The noun house [haus] – houses ['hauziz].

Peculiarities of Spelling. Notice the following:

a)  When a noun ends in – y preceded by a consonant is replaced by – i and the ending – es [iz] is added: city – cities; country – countries; penny – pennies (when a sum of money and not separate coins is meant the plural form pence is used: It costs five pence. But: Five pennies were lying on the table).

b) When a noun ends in – o with a preceding consonant, – es [z] is usually added: hero – heroes; Negro–Negroes; potato – potatoes; tomato – tomatoes. But: piano – pianos; photo – photos; zero – zeros.

c)  The plural of proper names and other parts of speech, figures, letters, etc. when substantivized, are sometimes written in the ordinary way, sometimes with an 's added:

The two Mary's or the two Marys (y remains unchanged). Mind your P's and Q's. Cross your t's and dot your i's. Don't use so many buts.

Oh, no, no, a thousand no's. [17]»… Mr. Copperfield objected to my threes and fives being too much alike each other, or to my putting curly tails to my sevens and nines,» resumed my mother. [10]

3. Some nouns are survivals of Old English plural forms; they form the plural:

a) By changing the root-vowel (vowel interchange): man – men, woman – women, foot – feet, tooth – teeth, goose – geese, mouse – mice;

b) By changing the root-vowel (vowel interchange) and adding the inflexion [en], in spelling – en: child – children; brother – brethren.1

4. Plural of Compound Nouns.

a) In compound nouns usually the head-noun takes the plural form: fellow-worker – fellow-workers; school-mate – school-mates; air-raid – air-raids; editor-in-chief – editors-in-chief; brother-in-law – brothers-in-law.

b)Compounds ending in – man change – man into – men in spelling, but in pronunciation there is no difference between the singular and the plural: postman ['poustman] – postmen ['poustman].

Such nouns as German, Roman, and Norman are not compounds. They form their plural in the usual way: Germans, Romans, Normans.

c) When the compound does not contain any noun, the plural is formed by adding – s to the last word: forget-me-not – forget-me-nots; merry-go-round (карусель) – merry-go-rounds; hold-all (порт плед) – hold-alls; overall – overalls.

d)Compounds in – fut add – s to the end: handful – handfuls; spoonful – spoonfuls; but also: columns-full (in newspapers).

e) If a proper noun is preceded by a title, the sign of the plural is added either to the title or to the proper noun itself; in colloquial speech it is usual to add the – s to the proper noun; in official speech the title is pluralized.

Colloquial: The two doctor Thompsons. The Miss Smiths Official: Messrs Jones. The Misses Smith.

The Miss Crumptons or to quote the authorities of the inscription on the garden-gate: The Misses Crumpton. [10]

f)       An adjectivized noun in attributive function is, as a rule, used in the singular even if the meaning is plural: a four-storey house, a five-act play, the printed-book section of a museum.

It was a three-mile walk along a dry white road, made whiter to-night by the light of the moon. [9]

There is, however, a growing tendency in recent times to use the plural form, especially in long official terms: a two-thirds majority; the food products department; the sports grounds; the United Nations Organization; parcels post.

Two powerful engines were pulling a goods train up the sharp incline… [4]

Streams of people were pouring out from the Sports Ground… [4]

In many instances where the form in – s is used it may be understood either as the plural form of the common case or as the plural possessive. Accordingly, the use of the apostrophe wavers:

a)       No apostrophe:

I enjoyed several hours sleep. There is twenty years difference in their age. I had only two shillings pocket money. A bridge of only two planks breadth.

b)       An apostrophe:

A five years' child. The Seven Years’ War. A two months' baby.

…it was a two-and-a half hours' drive. [21]

5. Plural Identical in Form With the Singular. – Some nouns have one form for both singular and plural (either always or in certain combinations).

Those nouns are partly survivals of the Old English and Latin uninflected plurals, partly forms which came to be used by the analogy of the old unchanged plurals.

The following nouns have one form for both singular and plural:

a)       Names of some animals: sheep, deer, swine:

… The sheep on the Downs lay quiet as stones. [21] 'Oh, Elizabeth, look, look! The deer!' '…Oh yes! How funny the little ones are! But how graceful!' [20]

b)       The noun fish and nouns denoting some sorts of fish, such as trout, cod, pike, salmon:

One day he caught a beautiful big fish… [11] In the water tiny fish swam between the olive growths of seaweed… [8] I know where trout are rising and where the salmon leap. [24]

To denote kinds of fish the form fishes is used:

There were many fishes in the net. She has bought a large book on our freshwater fishes. These pools swarm with a great variety of fishes.

c)       Names indicating number such as dozen, pair, couple, and score  (двадцать), when they are preceded by a numeral: two pair of gloves; five score of eggs; three dozen of shirts.

But the plural is also used:

He had… two pairs of stockings in his bundle. [10]

Note. – After many and few both forms are found: so many pair of wings, a great many pairs of gloves; a few score(s) of heads.

d)       We have survivals of the old uninflected plural in kind, sort, and manner. The usual construction is now to keep kind, sort, and manner unchanged, but to use the plural these (those) if the word following of is plural (these kind of tools). But this construction is by many considered grammatically incorrect and therefore in careful literary speech books of that kind are preferred to the colloquial those kind of books:

These kinds of pens. Such kind of duties. Those sort of speeches.

e)       The noun foot (measure of length) is feet in the plural. The plural foot is used when followed by a number indicating inches:

…I'm five foot eleven in my socks. [2] And was she tall enough? Only five foot five. [21]

f)   The noun pound (indicating money) has usually the s-plural except when followed by a numeral indicating shillings: two pounds, but: two pound ten.

g)  The nouns species and series borrowed from the Latin have also one form for both singular and plural:

A series of very, interesting experiments has been made in our laboratory. Two admirable series of the masters of Russian literature have been published recently. What a pretty species of roses! Many beautiful species of roses are cultivated in our garden.

6. Foreign Plurals. – Some nouns keep the plural form of the language (Latin, French or Greek) from which they have been borrowed:

Memorandum [am] – memoranda [э]; datum [am] – data [3]; phenomenon [an] – phenomena [aj; crisis [iz] – crises [i:zj; nucleus [ias] – nuclei [iai]; terminus [as] – termini [ai]; stimulus [as] – stimuli [at]; formula [a] – formulae [i:J; index – indices [i:z].

Words that are much used often have an English plural: memorandums, formulas, indexes, terminuses.

In all countries the broadest strata of the population have been mobilized in support of this great cause – the preservation of peace.

Then the pied wind-flowers and the tulip tall, and narcissi, the fairest among them all… [22]… the rest of the house had grown, emerging here and there into small oases of modernity. [21] Shelgrim wrote a few memoranda on his calendar pad, and signed a couple of letters before turning to Presley. [14]

Traditionally, the plural is formed by the inflexion – (e) s, the singular form of the nouns is a bare stem with a zero-inflexion. According this there are several ways of the pronunciation of the inflexion – (e) s at the end of the word, also there are several peculiarities in spelling. Some nouns are survivals of Old English plural forms; they form the plural. In many instances where the form in – s is used it may be understood either as the plural form of the common case or as the plural possessive. Some nouns have one form for both singular and plural. Some nouns are partly survivals of the Old English and Latin uninflected plurals, partly forms which came to be used by the analogy of the old unchanged plurals. Some nouns keep the plural form of the language (Latin, French or Greek) from which they have been borrowed.

1.4            Nouns Used in Both Numbers Singular and Plural

It is quite evident that only those nouns have both numbers (singular and plural) which denote things that can be counted, that is, things possessing a certain shape or having precise limits. Such nouns may be called countable or thing-nouns. To the group of nouns which have both numbers belong:

a)       Concrete nouns: a girl – two girls; a book – two books; a flower – two flowers.

He took the loaf back to the scullery. [15] Brown, crisp loaves stood on the hearth. [15] Flowers fell on her face, and she shut her eyes… One flower had remained tangled in her hair. [15]

b)       Abstract nouns: a day – two days; an event – two events; a task – two tasks.

Captain Cuttle liked this idea very much. [10] A new generation is growing up in our midst, a generation actuated by new ideas and new principles. [11] It was a momentary thought… [10] Andrew went back to Christine that evening with his thoughts in a maze. [23] I tried to shout but my voice was not very loud. [13] Voices and footsteps were heard in the passage… [19]

Nouns which have both numbers (countable) may be used with the indefinite article (in the singular) and associated with the pronouns some (in the singular or plural), many and few (in the plural):

A ring at the bell, repeated several times, roused him at last to go to the door. [21] What a night to wander out in! [21] Towards the evening of the following day…a letter arrived addressed to herself. [19] A, few early fallen oak-leaves strewed the terrace… [21] He had many invitations to dinner some of which he accepted. [7] Passing through a sort of porch made by two yew trees and some flowering-current bushes, the girl disappeared into the house. [21]

1.5            Pluralia Tantum and Singularia Tantum

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