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Management of organization


organization by technology

intensive, long-linked, technologies, mediating


Exercise 2. Ask questions to the given answers:

1) Question:

Answer: Max Weber, a German sociologist, applied the label bureaucracy to his formula for the most rationally efficient type of organization .

2) Question:

Answer: Organizational classifications aid systematic analysis and study of organizations.

3) Question:

Answer: Coordination of efforts multiplies individual contributions .

The writing module

III. Writing exercises:

Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with the suggested words:

flexible, thinking, because, complexity, acceptance

Barnard’s _____ theory of authority and growing environmental ______ and uncertainty questioned traditional organization theory. Open-system _____ became a promising alternative _____ it was useful in explaining the necessity of creating _____ and adaptable rather than rigid organizations.

Exercise 2. Compose a story on one of the topics (up to 100 words):

“Major characteristics of organizations”

“Traditional and modern views of organizations”

“Bureaucracy”




Lesson 7 The reading module

Read the text: Staffing and Human Resource Management

A synergistic relationship exists between individuals and their employing organizations. But students have strong concerns about their future organ izational life, especially about the quality of supervision they will experi ence. Apart from the formal employment contract, an informal and often unspoken psychological contract exists between employee and employer. Serious dissatisfaction can set in when the terms of an individual's psycho logical contract are not met. According to Argyris's incongruency thesis, the principles of formal organization tend to encourage psychological immaturity in the average employee. He believes that the demands of the typical organization are incongruent with the psychological needs of the individual, and individuals naturally strive to be mature but the organizations that employ them often encourage immature behavior.

Within the context of strategic human resource management, staffing encompasses human resource planning, acquisition, and development aimed at providing the talent necessary for organizational success. Four key staffing activities necessarily linked to organizational strategy and structure are: (1) human resource planning, (2) selection, (3) perform ance appraisal, and (4) training. A systems approach to human resource planning will help management devise staffing strategies for future hu man resource needs. As the organization's gatekeeper for vital human resources, employee selection should be more than a haphazard process of looking around for people to fill vacancies. There are relative advantages to promoting an insider as opposed to transferring in or hiring an outsider. Federal Equal Employment Opportunity laws require managers to make hiring and other personnel decisions on the basis of ability to perform rather than personal prejudice. Because interviews are the most popular employee screening device, experts recommend structured rather than traditional, informal interviews. A structured interview may be defined as a series of job-related questions with predetermined answers that are constantly applied across all interviews for a particular job.

Legally defensible performance appraisals (the process of evaluating individual job performance) enable managers to make objective personnel decisions. Of the three general approaches to performance appraisal – trait, behavior, and outcome – the behavior-oriented approach is the most strongly recommended. The rationale is that behavior, not personal traits or abilities, is ultimately responsible for job success or failure. Listed in declining order of popularity, six common performance appraisal techniques are goal setting, written essays, critical incidents (specific instances of inferior and superior performance are documented by the supervisor when they occur), graphic rating scales, weighted checklists (evaluators check appropriate adjectives or behavioral descriptions that have predetermined weight), and ranking/comparisons. Managers are challenged both to evaluate performance and to develop human potential during the performance appraisal process. This dilemma can be partially resolved by encouraging subordinates to engage in self-evaluation before offering constructive feedback on performance.

I. Reading Exercises:

Exercise 1. Read and memorize using a dictionary:


synergistic relationship, employer, employee, dissatisfaction, term, incongruency, immaturity, average, acquisition, trait, defensible, vital, vacancy, hiring, outsider, prejudice, haphazard.

Exercise 2. Answer the questions:

1) Why do student have strong concerns about their future organ izational life?

2) What does staffing encompass?

3) What are key staffing activities?

4) What is the most popular employee screening device?

Exercise 3. Match the left part with the right:

1. Legally defensible performance appraisals

a) staffing encompasses human resource planning, acquisition, and development.

2. A systems approach to human resource planning

b) when the terms of an individual's psycho logical contract are not met.

3. Serious dissatisfaction can set in


c) will help management devise staffing strategies for future hu man resource needs

4. Within the context of strategic human resource management,

d) enable managers to make objective personnel decisions.


Exercise 4. Open brackets choosing the right words:

Federal Equal Employment Opportunity laws (require/offer) managers to make hiring and other personnel decisions on the basis of ability to (transform/perform) rather than personal prejudice.

The speaking module

II. Speaking Exercises:

Exercise 1. Describe staffing, incongruency thesis, structured interview, performance appraisals, behavior-oriented approach, critical incidents using the suggested words and expressions as in example:

staffing

success, resource, acquisition, organizational, development, necessary, encompasses

example:

Staffing encompasses human resource planning, acquisition, and development aimed at providing the talent necessary for organizational success.


incongruency thesis

encourage, psychological needs, immaturity, behavior, strive, average, mature

structured interview

questions, predetermined, particular, constantly, series, applied, answers

performance appraisals

evaluating, objective, defensible, personnel, legally, make enable, individual

behavior-oriented approach

traits, failure, responsible, rationale, abilities, job, ultimately, personal

critical incidents

inferior, performance, documented, superior, occur, instances, supervisor


Exercise 2. Ask questions to the given answers:

1) Question:

Answer: There are relative advantages to promoting an insider as opposed to transferring in or hiring an outsider.

2) Question:

Answer: Apart from the formal employment contract, an informal and often unspoken psychological contract exists between employee and employer.

3) Question:

Answer: A systems approach to human resource planning will help management devise staffing strategies for future hu man resource needs.

The writing module

III. Writing exercises:

Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with the suggested words: resolved, feedback, subordinates, both, during

Managers are challenged _____ to evaluate performance and to develop human potential _____ the performance appraisal process. This dilemma can be partially ________ by encouraging _____ to engage in self-evaluation before offering constructive ________ on performance.

Exercise 2. Compose a story on one of the topics (up to 100 words):

“Staffing”

“Performance appraisals”

“Human Resource Management”


Lesson 8 The reading module

Read the text: Communicating

Observational research indicates that managers at all levels spend the majority of their workday communicating. Communication is a social process involving the transfer of information and understanding. Links in the communication process include sender, encode, medium, decode, receiver, and feedback. Noise is not an integral part of the chainlike communication process, but it may influence the process at any or all points. As the term is used here, noise is any interference with the normal flow of understanding from one person to another.

Perception is important to communication because it helps senders and receivers give meanings to environmental stimuli, including messages. Three perceptual subprocesses are selectivity, organization, and inter pretation. Perceptual defense enables one to screen out irrelevant stimuli, and perceptual set does the opposite. Grouping, figure-ground, and closure help people perceptually organize otherwise meaningless stimuli. Specialists often interpret situations differently because of their restricted perspectives.

Four dynamics of organizational communication are structural consid erations, the grapevine, nonverbal communication, and upward communication. Research suggests a trend toward greater centralization of the overall communication function. The unofficial and informal communication system that sometimes complements and sometimes disrupts the formal communication system has been labeled the grapevine. A sample of managers surveyed had predominantly negative feelings toward it. Recognizing that the grapevine cannot be extinguished, managers are advised to monitor it constructively. Nonverbal communication, including facial, gestural, and postural body language, accounts for most of the impact of face-to-face communication. Managers can become more effective communicators by doing a better job of receiving and giving nonverbal communication. Upward communication refers to a process of systematically encouraging subordinates to share with management their feelings and ideas. It can be stimulated by using formal grievance procedures, employee attitude and opinion surveys, suggestion boxes, an open-door policy, informal gripe session, task forces, and exit interviews.

Process, physical, semantic, and psychosocial barriers and sexist communication are common organizational communication problems. Awareness of the various barriers can improve communication effectiveness. Constructive steps also can be taken to become a better listener, writer, and meeting chairperson.

I. Reading Exercises:

Exercise 1. Read and memorize using a dictionary:

transfer, sender, receiver, decode, interference, perception, interpretation, perceptual defense, restricted perspectives, disrupt, sample, attitude, opinion survey, grievance, extinguish, feedback

Exercise 2. Answer the questions:

1) What is communication?

2) Why is perception important?

3) How can managers become more effective communicators?

4) What enables one to screen out irrelevant stimuli?

Exercise 3. Match the left part with the right:

1. Perception is important to communication

a) structural consid erations, the grapevine, nonverbal communication, and upward communication.


2. Research suggests a trend toward

b) because it helps senders and receivers give meanings to environmental stimuli, including messages.

3. Communication is a social process


c) greater centralization of the overall communication function.

4. Four dynamics of organizational communication are

d) the transfer of information and understanding.



Exercise 4. Open brackets choosing the right words:

(Recognizing/disagreeing) that the grapevine cannot be extinguished, managers are (dissuaded/advised) to monitor it constructively.

The speaking module

II. Speaking Exercises:

Exercise 1. Describe communication, noise, grapevine, nonverbal communication, upward communication using the suggested words and expressions as in example:

 

communication

receiver, links, process, medium, transfer, feedback, sender, social, involving

example:

Communication is a social process involving the transfer of information and understanding. Links in the communication process include sender, encode, medium, decode, receiver, and feedback.

 

noise

interference, flow, person, chainlike, influence, integral, process, understanding

 

grapevine

disrupt, unofficial, complements, informal, communication, sometimes, system

nonverbal communication

effective, face-to-face, body language, including, communicators, gestural, impact, facial

 

 

 

upward communication

share, ideas, opinion, open-door policy, subordinates, feelings, surveys, grievance, attitude

Exercise 2. Ask questions to the given answers:

1) Question:

Answer: Spe cialists often interpret situations differently because of their restricted perspectives.

2) Question:

Answer: Perceptual defense enables one to screen out irrelevant stimuli, and perceptual set does the opposite.

3) Question:

Answer: Managers can become more effective communicators by doing a better job of receiving and giving nonverbal communication

The writing module

III. Writing exercises:

Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with the suggested words: meaningless, does, screen, perceptual, closure

Three ______subprocesses are selectivity, organization, and inter pretation. Perceptual defense enables one to ______ out irrelevant stimuli, and perceptual set _____the opposite. Grouping, figure-ground, and ______help people perceptually organize otherwise ______stimuli.

Exercise 3. Compose a story on one of the topics (up to 100 words):

“Communication is a social process”

“Perception is essential to communication”

“Four dynamics of organizational communication”




Lesson 9 The reading module

Read the text: Motivation

Motivation refers to psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction. It is an important area of study for managers because it helps them better understand our most valuable resource, people. (Realistically, motivation is just one of many explanations of work behavior, such as one’s knowledge and emotional state and organizational factors.) Even though the employees in one study ranked “interesting work” the highest among the things they wanted from their jobs, their supervisors believed that wanted “good wages” above all else. This type of misperception of employees’ needs can cripple a motivation program. Pollster D. Yankelovich contends that traditional motivation tools such as fear, money, strict supervision, and the work ethic are inappropriate for nearly half of today’s labor force in the USA.

Among alternative motivation theories, Maslow’s needs hierarchy theory, Herzberg’s two-factor theory, and expectancy theory stand out as particularly relevant for managers. According to Maslov’s message, people always have needs, and when one need is relatively fulfilled, others emerge in a predictable sequence to take its place. His five-level needs hierarchy, although empirically criticized, makes it clear to managers that people are motivated by emerging rather than fulfilled needs. Assuming that job satisfaction and performance are positively related, Herzberg believes that the most that wages and working conditions can do is eliminate sources of dissatisfaction. According to Herzberg, the key to true satisfaction and hence motivation is an enriched job that provides an opportunity for achievement, responsibility, and personal growth. Expectancy theory is based on the idea that the strength of one's motivation to work is the product of perceived probabilities of acquiring personally valued rewards. Both effort-performance and performance-reward probabilities are important to expectancy theory.

Depending on how it is designed, a job can either hamper or promote personal growth and satisfaction. Although historically a key to higher productivity, specialization of labor has been associated with costly human problems in recent years. Managers have the options of fitting people to jobs or fitting jobs to people when attempting to counter the specialization-of-labor dilemma. The first option includes realistic job previews (honest explanations of what a job actually entails), job rotation( periodically moving people from one specialized job to another), and limited exposure (establishing a challenging yet but fair daily performance standard or quota, and letting employees go home when it is reached). Managers who pursue the second option, fitting jobs to people, can either enlarge (combine two or more tasks into a single job) or enrich (redesign a job to increase its motivating potential) jobs. Job enrichment vertically loads jobs to meet individual needs for meaningfulness, responsibility, and knowledge of results. Personal desire for growth and a supportive climate are required for successful job enrichment.

I. Reading Exercises:

Exercise 1. Read and memorize using a dictionary:

Misperception, strict supervision, inappropriate, job satisfaction, enriched job, achievement, responsibility, personal growth, expectancy theory, perceived probabilities, hamper, exposure.

Exercise 2. Answer the questions:

1) Why is motivation an important area of study for managers?

2) What can cripple a motivation program?

3) What is the key to true satisfaction, according to Herzberg?

4) What idea is expectancy theory based on?


Exercise 3. Match the left part with the right:

1. Managers have the options of fitting people to jobs or fitting jobs to people

a) are inappropriate for nearly half of today’s labor force in the USA

2. Yankelovich contends that traditional motivation tools

b) the most that wages and working conditions can do is eliminate sources of dissatisfaction.

3. Herzberg believes that

c) are important to expectancy theory.

4. Both effort-performance and performance-reward probabilities

d) when attempting to counter the specialization-of-labor dilemma.


Exercise 4. Open brackets choosing the right words:

Expectancy theory is based on the idea that the (weakness/strength) of one's motivation to work is the product of perceived probabilities of acquiring personally (valued/rejected) rewards.

The speaking module

II. Speaking Exercises:

Exercise 1. Describe motivation, needs hierarchy theory, two-factor theory, expectancy theory, limited exposure using the suggested words and expressions as in example:

motivation

valuable, behavior, purpose, knowledge, psychological, direction, understand

example

Motivation refers to psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction. It is an important area of study for managers because it helps them better understand our most valuable resource, people. Motivation is one of many explanations of work behavior, such as one’s knowledge and emotional state and organizational factors.


needs hierarchy theory

predictable, relatively, sequence, emerge, needs, fulfilled, place, motivated, predictable

two-factor theory

enriched, opportunity, responsibility, satisfaction, provides, growth, job

expectancy theory

rewards, acquiring, product, probabilities, performance, effort, valued, personally

limited exposure

performance, quota, home, reached, fair, go, daily, letting, establishing


Exercise 2. Ask questions to the given answers:

1) Question:

Answer: Job enrichment vertically loads jobs to meet individual needs for meaningfulness, responsibility, and knowledge of results.

2) Question:

Answer: Depending on how it is designed, a job can either hamper or promote personal growth and satisfaction.

3) Question:

Answer: Managers have the options of fitting people to jobs or fitting jobs to people when attempting to counter the specialization-of-labor dilemma.

The writing module

III. Writing exercises:

Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with the suggested words: misperception, though, above, from, ranked

Even _____the employees in one study _____“interesting work” the highest among the things they wanted _____their jobs, their supervisors believed that wanted “good wages” ______all else. This type of _____ of employees’ needs can cripple a motivation program.

Exercise 2. Compose a story on one of the topics (up to 100 words):

“Motivation is an important area of study for managers”

“Motivation theories”

“Job design”




Lesson 10 The reading module

Read the text: Group dynamics

Managers need a working understanding of group dynamics because groups are the basic social building blocks of organizations. Both informal (friendship) and formal (work) groups are made up of two or more freely interacting individuals who have a common identity and purpose. After someone has been attracted to a group, cohesiveness—a "we" feelings encourages continued membership. Roles are social expectations for behavior in a specific position, whereas norms are more general standards for conduct in a given social setting. Norms are enforced because they help the group survive, clarify role expectations, protect self-images, and enhance the group's identity by emphasizing key values. Compliance with role expectations and norms is rewarded with social reinforcement; non-compliance is punished by criticism, ridicule, and ostracism. Ostracism, or rejection from the group, is figuratively the capital punishment of group dynamics. Informal groups derive much of their power over individual through the ever present threat of ostracism.

Mature groups that are characterized by mutual acceptance, encourage ment of minority opinion, and minimal emotional conflict are the product of a developmental process with identifiable stages. During the first three stages – orientation, conflict and challenge, and cohesion – power and authority problems are resolved. Groups are faced with the obstacle of uncertainty over interpersonal relations during the last three stages – delusion (members believe that all the difficult emotional problems have been solved), disillusion (the delusion of unlimited goodwill wears off, and there is a growing disenchantment with how things are turning out), and acceptance (greater personal and mutual understanding helps members adapt to situations without causing problems). Committees have a widespread reputation for inefficiency and ineffectiveness because they tend to get stalled in an early stage of group development.

Trust is a key ingredient of effective group action that is clearly evident in Japanese management but often underutilized by American managers. When work group members trust one another, there will be a more active exchange of information, more interpersonal influence, and hence greater self-control. Managers who prefer either/or thinking, rely solely on hard data, and envision the world as basically an unsafe place foster a climate of mistrust. Political tactics such as posturing, empire building, making the boss look good, creating power and loyalty cliques, and destructive competition need to be kept in check if a healthy degree of trust is to be achieved.

Although a fairly high degree of conformity is necessary if organizations and society in general are to function properly, blind conformity is ultimately dehumanizing and destructive. Research shows that individuals have a strong tendency to bend to the will of the majority, even if the majority is clearly wrong. Cohesive decision-making groups can be victimized by groupthink when unanimity becomes more important than critically evaluating alternative courses of action.

I. Reading Exercises:

Exercise 1. Read and memorize using a dictionary:

cohesiveness, compliance with, mutual acceptance, delusion, disillusion, interpersonal influence, envision, mistrust, loyalty, destructive, conformity, minority, obstacle

Exercise 2. Answer the questions:

1) What obstacles are groups faced with?

2) What is compliance with role expectations and norms rewarded with?

3) Why is trust a key ingredient of effective group action?

4) Why are norms enforced?



Exercise 3. Match the left part with the right:

1. Mature groups that are characterized by

a) whereas norms are more general standards for conduct in a given social setting.

2 When work group members trust one another

b) because they tend to get stalled in an early stage of group development.

3. Roles are social expectations for behavior in a specific position

c) there will be a more active exchange of information, more interpersonal influence.

4. Committees have a widespread reputation for inefficiency and ineffectiveness

d) mutual acceptance, encourage ment of minority opinion, and minimal emotional conflict.


Exercise 4. Open brackets choosing the right words:

Compliance with role expectations and norms is (stalled/rewarded) with social reinforcement; non-compliance is (punished/accepted) by criticism, ridicule, and ostracism.

The speaking module

II. Speaking Exercises:

Exercise 1. Describe mature groups, trust, ostracism, norms, disillusion

using the suggested words and expressions as in example:

Mature groups

Emotional conflict, developmental process, encouragement, identifiable, opinion, are characterized by.

example: Mature groups that are characterized by mutual acceptance, encourage ment of minority opinion, and minimal emotional conflict are the product of a developmental process with identifiable stages.


ostracism

informal, punishment, power, rejection, derive, threat, individual, present

trust

information, influence, effective, one another, interpersonal, a key ingredient

norms

setting, survive, enhance, identity, enforced, self-images, clarify, standards

disillusion

wears off, disenchantment, how, turning out, goodwill, growing, things, unlimited,

Exercise 2. Ask questions to the given answers:

1) Question:

Answer: Committees have a widespread reputation for inefficiency and ineffectiveness because they tend to get stalled in an early stage of group development.

2) Question:

Answer: Groups are faced with the obstacle of uncertainty over interpersonal relations during the last three stages .

3) Question:

Answer: Managers who prefer either/or thinking, rely solely on hard

data, and envision the world as basically an unsafe place foster a climate of mistrust.

The writing module

III. Writing exercises:

Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with the suggested words: victimized, majority, than, tendency, shows.

Research _____that individuals have a strong ______ to bend to the will of the majority, even if the ______ is clearly wrong. Cohesive decision-making groups can be ______ by groupthink when unanimity becomes more important _____ critically evaluating alternative courses of action.

Exercise 2. Compose a story on one of the topics (up to 100 words):

“Formal and informal groups”

“Mature groups”

“Trust and mistrust in groups”


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