Правительство Соединенных Штатов

to eligible veterans of U.S. military service and their dependents. The

medicine and surgery department provides hospital and nursing home care,

and outpatient medical and dental services through 172 medical centers, 16

retirement homes, 228 clinics and 116 nursing homes in the United States,

Puerto Rico and the Philippines. It also supports veterans under care in

hospitals and nursing homes in 35 states. The veterans benefits department

oversees claims for disability, pensions, specially adapted housing and

other services. This department also administers education programs for

veterans, and provides housing credit assistance to eligible veterans and

active-duty service personnel. The memorial affairs department administers

the National Cemetery System, providing burial services, headstones and

markers to eligible veterans and their spouses within specially designated

cemeteries throughout the United States.

THE INDEPENDENT AGENCIES

The executive departments are the major operating units of | the federal

government, but there are many other agencies which have important

responsibilities for keeping the government and the economy working

smoothly. These are often called independent agencies, since they are not

part of the executive departments. The nature and purpose of these agencies

vary widely. Some are regulatory groups, with powers to supervise certain

sectors of the economy. Others provide special services, either to the

government or to the people. In most cases, the agencies have been created

by Congress to deal with matters that have become too complex for the scope

of ordinary legislation. The Interstate Commerce Commission, for example,

was established by Congress in 1887 to curb the growing power of the

railroads. In recent years, however, a trend toward deregulation of the

economy has altered the functions of many federal regulatory bodies. Among

the most important independent agencies are the following:

action is the principal federal agency for administering domestic volunteer

service programs to meet basic human needs, and to support the self-help

efforts of poor individuals and communities. Some of action's programs are

Foster Grandparents, offering older Americans opportunities for close

relationships with needy children; Volunteers in Service to America

(VISTA), which provides volunteers to work in poor communities; and Student

Community Service Projects, which encourages students to volunteer in their

communities as part of their education.

central intelligence agency (cia) coordinates intelligence activities of

certain government departments and agencies; collects, correlates and

evaluates intelligence information relating to national security; and makes

recommendations to the National Security Council.

environmental protection agency (epa), founded in 1970, works with state

and local governments throughout the United States to control and abate

pollution in the air and water, and to deal with the problems of solid

waste, pesticides, radiation and toxic substances. EPA sets and enforces

standards for air and water quality, evaluates the impact of pesticides and

chemical substances, and manages the so-called "Superfund" program for

cleaning toxic waste sites.

the federal communications commission licenses the operation of radio and

television stations and regulates interstate telephone and telegraph

services. It sets rates for interstate communications services, assigns

radio frequencies, and administers international communications treaties.

the federal reserve system supervises the private banking system of the

United States. It regulates the volume of credit and money in circulation.

The Federal Reserve performs many of the functions of central banks in

other countries, such as issuing paper currency; unlike central banks,

however, it does not act as the depository of the country's gold reserve.

the federal trade commission guards against trade abuses and unfair

business practices by conducting investigations and holding hearings on

complaints.

the general accounting office is an arm of the legislative branch that

oversees expenditures by the executive branch. It is headed by the

comptroller general of the United States. It settles or

adjusts—independently of the executive departments—all claims and demands

by or against the federal government, and all money accounts in which the

government is concerned. It also checks the ledger accounts of all federal

disbursement and collection officers to see that public funds have been

paid out legally.

the general services administration controls much of the physical property

of the federal government. It is responsible for the purchase, supply,

operation and maintenance of federal property, buildings and equipment, and

for the sale of surplus items.

the interstate commerce commission regulates the rates and practices in

interstate commerce of all common carriers, such as railroads, buses,

trucks, and shipping on inland waterways. It supervises the issuance of

stocks and bonds by common carriers and enforces safety laws.

THE NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (NASA), established in

1958 to run the U.S. space program, placed the first American satellites

and astronauts in orbit, and launched the Apollo spacecraft that landed men

on the moon in 1969. Today, NASA conducts research aboard Earth-orbiting

satellites and interplanetary probes, explores new concepts in advanced

aerospace technology, and operates the U.S. fleet of manned space shuttles.

In the 1990s, NASA will assemble, in space, the components for a permanent

space station manned by international crews from the United States, Europe

and Japan.

THE NATIONAL FOUNDATION ON THE ARTS AND THE HUMANITIES encourages the

development of American arts, literature and scholarship, through grants to

individuals, groups, institutions and state agencies.

the national labor relations board administers the principal U.S. labor

law, the National Labor Relations Act. The Board is vested with the power

to prevent or remedy unfair labor practices and to safeguard employees'

rights to organize and determine through elections whether to have unions

as their bargaining representative.

the national science foundation was created to strengthen basic research

and education in the sciences in the United States. It grants funds for

research and education programs to universities and other institutions, and

coordinates the science information activities of the federal government.

the office of national drug control policy, created in 1988 to raise the

profile of the U.S. government's fight against illegal drugs, coordinates

efforts of such agencies as the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration, the

Customs Service and the Coast Guard.

THE OFFICE OF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT in 1979 assumed functions of the Civil

Service Commission, which was created in 1883 to establish a merit system

for government service and to eliminate politics from public appointments.

The agency holds competitive examinations across the country to select

qualified workers for over three million government posts. It also sponsors

training programs to increase the effectiveness of government employees.

the peace corps, founded in 1961, trains volunteers to serve in foreign

countries for two years. Peace Corps volunteers, now working in more than

60 nations, assist in agricultural-rural development, small business,

health, natural resources conservation and education.

THE SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION was established to protect investors

who buy stocks and bonds. Federal laws require companies that plan to raise

money by selling their own securities to file facts about their operations

with the commission. The commission has powers to prevent or punish fraud

in the sale of securities, and is authorized to regulate stock exchanges.

the small business administration lends money to small businesses, aids

victims of floods and other natural disasters, and helps secure contracts

for small businesses to supply goods and services to the federal

government.

THE UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (USAID) carries out

economic assistance programs designed to help the people in developing

countries develop their human and economic resources, increase their

productive capacities, and improve the quality of human life. The USAID

administrator also serves as director of the U.S. International Development

Cooperation Agency, which serves as the focal point for U.S. participation

in such organizations as the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF), the Organization

of American States (OAS) Technical Assistance Funds program, the World Bank

Group, and along with the Department of Agriculture, the Food for Peace

Program.

THE UNITED STATES ARMS CONTROL AND DISARMAMENT AGENCY is responsible for

U.S. participation in international negotiations on arms limitation and

disarmament. It represents the United States on international arms control

commissions and supports research on arms control and disarmament.

THE UNITED STATES INFORMATION AGENCY (USIA) seeks to promote better

understanding of the United States in other countries through the

dissemination abroad of information about the nation, its people, culture

and policies. USIA also administers a number of two-way educational and

cultural exchange programs, such as the Fulbright Program, with foreign

nations. It provides assistance to foreign press and television journalists

covering the United States. The Agency also advises the president and the

various departments of the government on foreign opinion concerning U.S.

policies and programs.

the united states postal service is operated by an autonomous public

corporation that replaced the Post Office Department in 1971. The Postal

Service is responsible for the collection, transportation and delivery of

the mails, and for the operation of thousands of local post offices across

the country. It also provides international mail service through the

Universal Postal Union and other agreements with foreign countries. An

independent Postal Rate Commission, also created in 1971, sets the rates

for different classes of mail.

THE LEGISLATIVE BRANCH

A BICAMERAL CONGRESS

Article I of the Constitution grants all legislative powers of the federal

government to a Congress divided into two chambers. a Senate and a House of

Representatives. The Senate, the smaller of the two, is composed of two

members for each state as provided by the Constitution, Membership in the

House is based on population and its size is therefore not specified in the

Constitution.

For more than 100 years after the adoption of the Constitution, senators

were not elected by direct vote of the people but were chosen by state

legislatures. Senators were looked on as representatives of their home

states. Their duty was to ensure that their states were treated equally in

all legislation. The 17th Amendment, adopted in 1913, provided for direct

election of the Senate.

The delegates to the Constitutional Convention reasoned that if two

separate groups—one representing state governments and one representing the

people—must both approve every proposed law, there would be little danger

of Congress passing laws hurriedly or carelessly. One house could always

check the other in the manner of the British Parliament. Passage of the

17th Amendment did not substantially alter this balance of power between

the two houses.

While there was intense debate in the Convention over the makeup and

powers of Congress, many delegates believed that the legislative branch

would be relatively unimportant. A few believed that the Congress would

concern itself largely with external affairs, leaving domestic matters to

state and local governments. These views were clearly wide of the mark. The

Congress has proved to be exceedingly active, with broad powers and

authority in all matters of national concern. While its strength vis-a-vis

the executive branch has waxed and waned at different periods of American

history, the Congress has never been impotent or a rubber stamp for

presidential decisions.

QUALIFICATIONS OF MEMBERS OF CONCRESS

The Constitution requires that U.S. senators must be at least 30 years of

age, citizens of the United States for at least nine years, and residents

of the states from which they are elected. Members of the House of

Representatives must be at least 25, citizens for seven years, and

residents of the states which send them to Congress. The states may set

additional requirements for election to Congress, but the Constitution

gives each house the power to determine the qualifications of its members.

Each state is entitled to two senators. Thus, Rhode Island, the smallest

state, with an area of about 3,156 square kilometers has the same

senatorial representation as Alaska, the biggest state, with an area of

some 1,524,640 square kilometers. Wyoming, with 490,000 persons in 1987,

has representation equal to that of California, with its 1987 population of

27,663,000.

The total number of members of the House of Representatives has been

determined by Congress. That number is then divided among the states

according to their populations. Regardless of its population, every state

is constitutionally guaranteed at least one member of the House of

Representatives. At present, six states—Alaska, Delaware, North Dakota,

South Dakota, Vermont and Wyoming—have only one representative. On the

other hand, six states have more than 20 representatives—California alone

has 45.

The Constitution provides for a national census each 10 years and a

redistribution of House seats according to population shifts. Under the

original constitutional provision, the number of representatives was to be

no more than one for each 30,000 citizens. There were 65 members in the

first House, and the number was increased to 106 after the first census.

Had the one-to-30,000 formula been adhered to permanently, population

growth in the United States would have brought the total number of

representatives to about 7,000. Instead, the formula has been adjusted over

the years, and today the House is composed of 435 members, roughly one for

each 530,000 persons in the United States.

State legislatures divide the states into congressional districts, which

must be substantially equal in population. Every two years, the voters of

each district choose a representative for Congress.

Senators are chosen in statewide elections held in even-numbered years.

The senatorial term is six years, and every two years one-third of the

Senate stands for election. Hence, two-thirds of the senators are always

persons with some legislative experience at the national level.

It is theoretically possible for the House to be composed entirely of

legislative novices. In practice, however, most members are reelected

several times and the House, like the Senate, can always count on a core

group of experienced legislators.

Since members of the House serve two-year terms, the life of a Congress

is considered to be two years. The 20th Amendment provides that the

Congress will meet in regular session each January 3, unless Congress fixes

a different date. The Congress remains in session until its members vote to

adjourn—usually late in the year. The president may call a special session

when he or she thinks it necessary. Sessions are held in the Capitol in

Washington, D.C.

POWERS OF THE HOUSE AND SENATE

Each house of Congress has the power to introduce legislation on any

subject except revenue bills, which must originate in the House of

Representatives. The large states may thus appear to have more influence

over the public purse than the small states. In practice, however, each

house can vote against legislation passed by the other house. The Senate

may disapprove a House revenue bill—or any bill, for that matter—or add

amendments which change its nature. In that event, a conference committee

made up of members from both houses must work out a compromise acceptable

to both sides before the bill becomes law.

The Senate also has certain powers especially reserved to that body,

including the authority to confirm presidential appointments of high

officials and ambassadors of the federal government as well as authority to

ratify all treaties by a two-thirds vote. Unfavorable action in either

instance nullifies executive action.

In the case of impeachment of federal officials, the House has the sole

right to bring charges of misconduct that can lead to an impeachment trial.

The Senate has the sole power to try impeachment cases and to find

officials guilty or not guilty. A finding of guilt results in the removal

of the federal official from public office.

The broad powers of the whole Congress are spelled out in the eighth

section of the first article of the Constitution:

— to levy and collect taxes;

— to borrow money for the public treasury;

— to make rules and regulations governing commerce among the states and

with foreign countries;

— to make uniform rules for the naturalization of foreign citizens;

— to coin money, state its value, and provide for the punishment of

counterfeiters;

— to set the standards for weights and measures;

— to establish bankruptcy laws for the country as a whole;

— to establish post offices and post roads;

— to issue patents and copyrights;

— to set up a system of federal courts;

— to punish piracy;

— to declare war;

— to raise and support armies;

— to provide for a navy;

— to call out the militia to enforce federal laws, suppress lawlessness or

repel invasions by foreign powers;

— to make all laws for the District of Columbia; and

— to make all laws necessary to enforce the Constitution.

A few of these powers are now outdated—the District of Columbia today is

largely self-governing—but they remain in effect. The 10th Amendment sets

definite limits on congressional authority, by providing that powers not

delegated to the national government are reserved to the states or to the

people. In addition, the Constitution specifically forbids certain acts by

Congress. It may not:

— suspend the writ of habeas corpus, unless necessary in time of rebellion

or invasion;

— pass laws which condemn persons for crimes or unlawful acts without a

trial;

— pass any law which retroactively makes a specific act a crime;

— levy direct taxes on citizens, except on the basis of a census already

taken;

— tax exports from any one state;

— give specially favorable treatment in commerce or taxation to the

seaports of any state or to the vessels using them; and

— authorize any titles of nobility.

LITTLE LEGISLATURES

A congressman once observed that "Congress is a collection of committees

that come together in a chamber periodically to approve one another's

actions. " That statement correctly identifies the standing and permanent

committees that are the nerve centers of the U.S. Congress. In a recent two-

year session of Congress, for example, members proposed a total of I], 602

bills in the House and 4,080 in the Senate. For each of these bills, the

committees responsible had to study, weigh arguments [or and against, hear

witnesses and debate changes, before the bills ever reached the House or

Senate floors. Out of almost ] 5,000 measures introduced, only 664—fewer

than six percent—were enacted into law.

The Constitution does not specifically call for congressional

committees. As the nation grew, however, so did the need for investigating

pending legislation more thoroughly. The committee system began in 1789,

when House members found themselves bogged down in endless discussions of

proposed new laws. The first committees dealt with Revolutionary War

claims, post roads and territories, and trade with other countries.

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