Multiple Intelligences in the structure of a new English syllabus for secondary school

What  is  current  methodology? Do  we  have  to  abandon  all  we  have  learned  of  the  Audio-Lingual  method, the  Direct  Method (DM), and  start  anew? Thus  far, the  suggestions  for  change  have  been  gentle, but  we  have  not  been  left  with  a  vacuum  to  be  filed. Judging  from  techniques  and  trends  of  the  past  few  years, we  can  see  that  current  thinking  methodology  seems  to  be  in  the  direction  of: – relaxation  of  some  extreme  restrictions  of  A-LM  and  DM; – development  of  techniques  requiring  a  more  active  use  of  the  students  mental  detail.

Let  us  examine  these  two  trends  in  some  detail.

Teachers  have  found  that  a  close  adherence  to  the  listening-speaking-reading-writing  order  has  not  always  been  effective  and  brought  the  desired  results.

On  the  other  hand  a  lack  of  such  adherence  has  not  proved  harmful. They  has  also  called  into  question  the  theory  that  speech  is  primary  and  reading  and  writing  are  secondary  manifestations. Such  theoretical  and  experimental  rethinking  has  resulted  in  the  current  trend  toward  teaching  and  testing  the  various  language  skills  in  more  integrated  way. The  close  procedure  provides  an  interesting  and  thought-provoking  exercise, which  trains  the  students  to  look  carefully  at  all  structural  clues  and  to  range  around  within  a  semantic  field  for  related  concerts. It  is  a  good  preparation  for  careful  reading  and  a  useful  overall  written  test.

The  teachers  no  longer  feel  the  need  to  defer  or  widely  separate  reading  and  writing  lessons  from  listening  and  speaking  activities. 

Similarly  the  prohibition  against  using  the  student’s  native  language  has  been  considerably  relaxed. It  is  just  more  efficient  to  give  explanations  and  instructions  in  the  native  language  because  it  affords  more  time  for  really  meaningful  practice  in  English.

Notable  among  current  trends  is  the  more  practical  recognition  of  the  varying  needs  of  learners. If, for  instance, a  learner  needs  a  reading  knowledge  of  English  above  all  else, then  reading  must  have  priority, and  the  learner  must  learn  this  skill  through  specific  guided  practice  in  reading.

Another  question  is  whether  the  teacher  should  polish  learner’s  structure  so  as  to  exclude  a  change  of  making  a  mistake. That  “prohibition”  of  errors  way  largely  due  to  the  fear  that  mistakes  would  contribute  to  the  creation  of  a  bad  habit. Now  that  the  “habit  theory” of  language  acquisition  has  been  challenged  and  creative  aspects  of  language  learning  emphasised, the  teacher  is  freed  from  this  fear. Student’s  creative  involvement  is  more  important  to  the  learning  process  than  the  mere  avoiding  of  errors  (this  doesn’t  mean  that  the  teacher  should  not  correct  the  student  and  provide  necessary  drill  when  appropriate).

Teachers  for  some  time  have  felt  a  need  of  moving  from  A-LM  (with  its  rigid  structure  pattern)  to  a  less  controlled  situation  in  which  the  student  can  communicate  his  own  ideas. Classroom  activities  may  be  grouped  into  four  categories:

completely  manipulative;

predominantly  manipulative;

predominantly  communicative;

 completely  communicative.

Examples  of  completely  manipulative  activity  would  be:

a) a drill in which the students merely repeat  sentences after the teacher;

b) a simple substitution drill ( by showing a picture or explaining a scene from the students experience). The latter exercise could be made into a predominantly manipulative drill, that is it would include a small element of communication).

In a more advanced class the students retell a story the teacher has given them. Finally, an example of pure communication would be a free conversation among the members of the class, such as a role-playing, conference, etc.)     

Cognitive Code-Learning Theory (CC-LT) or the Trend toward Cognitive Activity

The trend toward a more active use of the students' mental powers probably represents the most important effort of the cognitive theory of language acquisition. Advocates of the A-LM often advised the teacher to keep students "active" - since, they said, when a student is active he is learning. They advised him to have all his students saying things aloud in English during as much of the class period as possible. This was the chief reason for doing so much choral work. In this way the greatest number of

students could be actively participating - "using the language" as it was called .

Language learning is viewed as rule acquisition, not habit formation. Instruction is often individualized: learners are responsible for their own learning. Reading and writing are once again as important as listening and speaking; errors are viewed as inevitable.

But the utility of such "active" use of the language has been challenged by proponents of  CC-LT. They point out that the mere mechanical repetition of language forms is in reality passive rather than active learning, for  it is primarily - sometimes almost entirely - a physical, mechanical sort of activity. It does not begin to engage the student's full mental powers. CC-LT, as a FLT method, is based on the following principal assumptions:

1. language is a system of signs, governed by its own rules;

2. CC-LT implies recognition of form, perception of meaning, relations of universals and particulars, generalisation and analogy;

3. the assimilation of material is directly proportional to the degree of its  comprehension;              

4. language is more than a system of habits which can be formed through

Systematic drills;

5. language learning is a creative process, therefore the student should

be as mentally active as possible in all assigned work:

6. a) drills and exercises should be meaningful;

b) deductive use of exercises designed to teach grammar structures (deductive explanations, i.e. rule prior to practice, starting with the rule and then offering examples to show how this rule applies);

c) rote learning is to be avoided;

d) reading and writing should be taught at early stages along with

listening and speaking;

e) occasional use of student's native language for explanation of new grammar and vocabulary is beneficial.

 The cognitive principles of learning can conveniently be

summarised under three headings:

1. the need for experience;

2. the process of assimilation;

3. developmental stages.

 These three principles are not only suited to adult learners but they have been readily adopted in the primary school, and the following are suggestions for practicing cognitive principles in the classroom with younger  children:

a) Give experience of  the language they are learning - teach them poems, rhymes, songs, tell them stories, talk to them.

b) Give them activities - painting, modeling, playing game, etc.

c) Don't stick rigidly to a predetermined language syllabus - allow the activities that take place in the class to range freely and develop naturally and let the occurrence of stimulating events that happen in the environment influence the vocabulary and structures that are introduced and practiced  in each lesson.

Viewing language learning as a natural creative process rather than as habit formation, suggests that the teacher should provide guided practice in thinking in the language rather than a mere repetition drill. Such mental involvement tends to make language learning more enjoyable tor the student, - hence improved attitudes and better results.

It seems also appropriate to remind ourselves that teaching involves much more than a knowledge of methods. However well-versed a  teacher may be in psychological and linguistic theories, in techniques and methodologies, his knowledge alone will not assure success. An   even more basic ingredient of all good teaching is the teacher's attitude toward his students and his work.

We must recognise the teacher's compassionate, intelligent, individual approach to his work as the essential factor in successful language teaching,                                                

To sum it up, language in CC-LT is viewed as an abstract model, governed by its own rules; language material is assimilated in blocks, not  discretely i.e. in their constitutive elements; assimilation is directly proportional to comprehension; frequency of contrast is more important than frequency of repetition. According to this theory assimilation of language is achieved by conscious control over phonological, grammatical, and lexical models of a foreign language by way of conscious learning and analysis.

And, finally, practice and pedagogical experimenting shows that the priority of a certain methods is not justified. Some specialists believe  that a creative synthesis of provisions of every method (eclecticism) may yield good results. 

1.1.2. Current Concepts in secondary school graduates EFL

While the field of teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) to high

school graduates has its own unique terms and concepts, it often draws

from the professional vocabulary of other areas of education such as K-

12, adult basic education, and higher education. This article presents a

selection of such terms and concepts, discussing them as they are

applied in the adult ESL context and citing sources where they are

described with adult immigrant learners in mind. Some terms are broad,

representing theories or approaches, while others might be more

accurately described as methods or techniques. Most are mutually

supportive and can be integrated in instruction to expand and enrich learning in any EFL setting.

Authentic or Alternative Assessment

Authentic or alternative assessment describes efforts to document learner achievement through activities that require integration and application of knowledge and skills and are based on classroom instruction. Ideally, these assessments are relevant to real-life contexts and include activities such as creating a budget, completing a project, or participating in an interview Authentic assessments are criterion referenced, in that

criteria for successful performance are established and clearly articulated. They focus

on the learning process as well as the products and they include means for learner

self-assessment and reflection. Often, authentic assessments are used in conjunction

with standardized tests to provide a more complete picture of learner progress.

Examples of authentic assessment include performance-based assessment, learner self-assessment, and portfolios. Performance-based assessment activities require learners to integrate acquired knowledge and skills to solve realistic or authentic problems, such as taking telephone messages, completing an application, or giving directions. Self assessment refers to checklists, logs, reflective journals, or

questionnaires completed by learners that highlight their strategies, attitudes, feelings, and accomplishments throughout the learning process .

Portfolio assessment consists of a systematic collection of the learners' work (such as writing samples, journal entries, worksheets, recorded speech samples, or standardized test results) to show individual progress toward meeting instructional objectives .

                     Computer-Assisted Language Learning

The use of computer-based technologies for language instruction is known as computer-assisted language learning (CALL). Computer software, including multimedia applications, and the Internet and the World Wide Web are examples of such technologies at use in language programs today.

Computer technologies can provide a course of instruction, facilitate activities and tasks, or create opportunities for additional practice . CALL

can also be structured to promoted teamwork and collaboration among the learners, a necessity for those programs with limited access to technology . It can be incorporated in instruction as an integral part of a class, as an option that learners access individually, or in some combination of class-based and self-access models.

 Using technology can sometimes be difficult. The planning

process should involve consideration of at least the following elements: the needs and goals of the program, instructional focus, staffing, software and hardware availability or accessibility, learners' learning goals; and learners' and staffs' experiences with and attitudes toward computer use .

                              Critical Literacy Theory

  Critical literacy theory expands the discussion of literacy practice beyond the basic functions of reading and writing. Where traditional literacy instruction might focus on skills such as decoding, predicting, or summarizing, critical literacy theory encourages critical examination of text, especially the social, political, and ideological elements present. Based in the assumption that literacy practices have the capability to

both reflect and shape the issues and power relationships at play in the larger society, critical literacy theory seeks to empower learners through development of critical and analytical literacy skills .

  In the general sense, critical literacy theory encourages teachers to create instructional activities that help learners use analytical skills to question and respond to such elements as perspective, purpose, effect, or relevance of what they read and write.

 For example, a teacher might prompt learners to distinguish fact from

opinion in a newspaper editorial or to identify an author's position on a topic and compare it to their own. The focus is on the learner as decision maker and active interpreter in reading and writing activities.

                        Family and Intergenerational Literacy

    Family literacy has traditionally described the use of literacy within the context of the family, often as related to early childhood development and parental support of children's school achievement. Intergenerational literacy broadens that description, recognizing that relationships between adults and children, both within and outside the traditional definition of the family unit, affect the literacy use and development of all involved. Family literacy programs for ESL populations generally use family and

family relationships as content and involve at least two generations of participants.

    The goals of family and intergenerational literacy programs are varied. Some focus on the family and school, seeking to increase parental involvement, improve communication, increase schools' responsiveness to communities, and support children's academic achievement . Others pursue broader objectives, such as furthering literacy skills development and positive behaviors linked to reading for both adults and children. Still others focus on facilitating the reconnection of generations divided by different linguistic and cultural experiences.

                 Multiple Intelligences and Learning Styles

Multiple intelligences and learning style preferences both refer to the ways that individuals approach information processing and learning. Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences proposes that there are at least seven different abilities that individuals can develop to solve problems or create products:

  verbal/linguistic,

  musical,

  logical/mathematical,

  spatial/visual,

  bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, and

  intrapersonal .

Each intelligence is distinguished by its own competencies and skills and directly influences the way an individual will interpret and utilize information.
Learning styles are the broad preferences that learners tend to exhibit when faced with new content or problems that need to be solved. These styles encompass cognitive, affective, and behavioral elements, and describe learners in terms of their preferences for group or individual learning contexts, the degree to which they separate details

from complex backgrounds (field dependent vs. field independent), or their affinity for analytic, abstract perspectives as opposed to more integrated, comprehensive ones (analytic vs. global) .

Awareness of different intelligences and learning styles, and individuals' preferences for them can help teachers create positive learning experiences . By varying instructional activities to accommodate learners'

preferences (lectures, visuals, hands-on activities, songs) or by offering options for responses to instruction (write a paper, create a model, give a demonstration), teachers can support learners' access to and understanding of content.

       Practitioner Inquiry, Reflective Teaching, and Action Research

Practitioner inquiry, reflective teaching, and action research refer to a teacher-centered approach to professional and staff development. Like the learner-centered approach to instruction, which focuses on the needs of the learners and respects them as partners in the learning process, these approaches to professional development put practitioners at the center of the process defining, investigating, and addressing issues

in their own teaching .

    These models require practitioners to become researchers and take a questioning stance towards their work. Rather than focusing on their deficits, teachers concentrate on their strengths and interests as means for enhancing their knowledge and teaching skills . The following steps are usually part of the process: reflecting upon practice as a means of identifying a problem or question; gathering information on that problem or question; examining and reflecting on the data gathered; planning some action based on the information; implementing the action planned; monitoring and evaluating the changes that may or may not result

from the action; and collaborating or sharing with colleagues . These

terms and similar variations are often used interchangeably, their differences typically illustrating the elements emphasized, in other words, reflective teaching highlights ongoing self-assessment while action research focuses on planning, implementing, and evaluating actual changes in the classroom.

                               Project-based Education

      Project-based education is an instructional approach that seeks to contextualize language learning by involving learners in projects, rather than in isolated activities targeting specific skills. Project-based learning activities generally integrate language and cognitive skills, connect to real-life problems, generate high learner interest, and involve some cooperative or group learning skills . Unlike instruction where content is organized by themes that relate and contextualize material to be learned, project-based learning presents learners with a problem to solve or a product to produce. They must then plan and execute activities to achieve

their objectives.

Projects selected may be complex and require an investment of time and resources, or they may be more modest in scale. Examples of projects include a class cookbook, an international food bazaar, a folktale-based story hour at a local library, a neighborhood services directory, or a class web page . In the selection of projects and activities, it is important to include learners' input, as well as to consider carefully how the project will fit with overall instructional goals and objectives .

Chapter 2.  Theory of Multiple Intelligences.

2.1. Gardner’s Theory.

Arguing that "reason, intelligence, logic, knowledge are not synonymous...," Howard Gardner (1983) proposed a new view of intelligence that is rapidly being incorporated in school curricula. In his Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Gardner expanded the concept of intelligence to also include such areas as music, spacial relations, and

interpersonal knowledge in addition to mathematical and linguistic ability.

This research discusses the origins of Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences, his definition of intelligence, the incorporation of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences into the classroom, and its role in alternative assessment practices.

                                   Definition

     According to Howard Gardner, as presented in his book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, human intelligence has the following characteristics:

-A set of skills that enable a person to resolve genuine problems     encountered in life.

-The Ability to create an effective product or offer a service that is valued in a culture.

-The Potential for recognizing or creating problems, thereby establishing the necessity for the new knowledge.

    Howard Gardner said in his book: “it becomes necessary to say, once and for all, that there can never be, a single irrefutable and universally accepted list of human intelligences.

    Though an exhaustive list of every intelligence may not be possible, identifying intelligences is important for at least two reasons:

-Classification of Human Intellectual Competencies which will allow a better understanding of humanity.

-Identification of Intellectual Strengths which will enable researchers to communicate more accurately about the concept of Intellect.

                                 Seven Intelligences

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