Russian Identity

Russian Identity

Introduction

In my research, I will study identity of Russia, its national identity and their meaning for international politics. I also aim to show that identity is important in state construction.

First, I would like to mention that an issue of identity is quite important as it provides certain characteristics of state. It describes state and resolves questions of state identification. It characterizes state in the context of other states. Besides, it constructs an idea of state.

Hopf states that identities are necessary in international politics in order to ensure some level of predictability and order. A world without identities is a world of chaos, a world of uncertainty. Identities perform necessary functions in a society: they tell you and others who you are and they tell you who others are. A state understands others according to the identity it attributes to them, and reproduces its own identity (Hopf 1998: 174).

In constructivism, identity is an important creative factor. Identity plays an important role in the world politics. Identities are produced by interactions, institutions, norms and cultures. Identities are important for the construction of the state (Wendt 1992).

Understanding how identities are constructed, what norms and practices accompany their reproduction, and how they construct each other is a major part of the constructivist research program. Constructivism assumes, a priori, that identities are potentially part of the constitutive practices of the state, and so, productive of its actions at home and abroad. Different states behave differently towards other states, based on the identities of each (Hopf 1998, 174).

Identity of state in international politics is quite important as it characterizes state internally and internationally. Every identity brings in itself a certain knowledge about the state, its internal and external issues, as well as state behavior. Russian state has its peculiar role in the world. It is a huge power, which has it's specific national identity and which occupies special position in the world order. To see Russia's development in history, it has undergone many changes, and during the history the state identity of Russia was formed. Dramatic changes, which characterized all the history of Russian Empire were significant and reflected a strong nature of Russian state. Its position in the world order defines Russian state as a global power.

On the other hand,  national identity of Russia is very  strong. It is based on hundreds years of history, culture and traditions. National identity together with language, traditions, culture, is main characteristic of Russian nation and forms the basis of its self-definition. Russian national identity has therefore certain spiritual and materialistic soil which includes also culture and politics of state.  National identity of Russia has main identification character.

Russian identity is very unique in Western civilization. It's peculiarities lie within historical development and its specific features in comparison to Western civilization in general. Russian identity has its own value and is motivated by internal factors, as well as by external factors, for example in the context of the EU, by other neighboring states and world politics. As far as we go further, Russia becomes more developed and interconnected in the world and West. In the context of constructivism, it will sound as a state construction, and a theoretically approved fact.

In case of geopolitics, Russia is in strategic position, in the centre of Eurasia. It is divided with Ural mountains into European and Asian parts. It is a country with huge natural resources, including oil, gas and gold.

Another important issue is Russian Orthodoxy, which influences Russian state and culture, as well as it forms the Russian identity from its side. Phrases like ”81% of Russians identify themselves as Orthodox”, ”To be Russian is to be Orthodox”, ”The special contribution of Orthodoxy to the history of Russia is the development of Russia´s spiritually” are significant. Special status of Orthodoxy over all other religious traditions in Russia is stated. On the other hand the alternatives to the future of Orthodox church are presented, for example, removing the church from the direct participation in politics, as well as keeping the state separated from the church. Thus the place of the church and other religious organizations is challenged in Russia.

The search for Russian national identity is an important trend. Russians have easily identified with standard, dominant Russian cultures - be they Russian Orthodox, Russian Imperial or Russian Soviet. It was other peoples of the empire, in particular Moslem and Western Christian (Roman Catholic and Protestant), who had problems. This is why during hundreds years Russians did not have very strong ethnic identity, whereas their many non-Russian neighbors did. However, this has been changing lately (Ponarin 1999).

Russian national identity has been an important issue especially during the rule of Putin. There is a certain trend towards strengthening a prestige and  national self-identity of state. The problem of identity of Russia has been quite actual during the last 15 years and it is connected with the problem of balance of power. New identity of Russia is formed, but there is some uncertainty. Russia is undergoing important changes in politics and it is considered to be a powerful, but quite unpredictable nation.

Official point of view by Igor Ivanov (2001) is that Russia's foreign policy is based on national interests rather than political ideology. He says, Russia believes that the settlement of international problems on a collective basis in strict accordance with the rules of international law will become a fundamental principle of  Russian system. The scope of Russia's activities is expanding to include international cooperation aimed at responding to new global threats and challenges (Ivanov 2001: 12-13).

By reflecting its interests in the world politics, Russian state constitutes to the world order of states. It has its specific identity and behavior, therefore it signifies its important role in the world and makes a commitment to world political composition and behavior. Second, ideas and behavior are important in shaping International Relations, and Russia behaves accordingly to international rules.

In my paper, I am going to study the identity of Russia. I will mostly concentrate on how Russia formed its identity in the past and in the present, and I will question, why it is so important to identify Russia as a nation. I will look closer on Russia's history. Besides, I will make a brief description between the view of Russian identity introduced by Russian, as well as Western scholars, who reflect ideas about Russian identity, and I will examine these issues.

Question of identity is quite important because it touches historical, geopolitical and other aspects. Therefore, I will consider these aspects and place them as the most important in the formation of Russian identity. I will use a theory of constructivism to show, how the identity is formed in the aspect of states formation and in the wider context, including the identity of Russia as a peculiar phenomenon in history. My paper will also include the brief observation of the history of Russia, of Russian identity nowadays and the analysis of the official position of Russia in politics. I will therefore examine national specifics, as well as traditions of Russia. Formation of Russian identity is a challenging topic for me. Besides, I will base my research on other sources of formation of national identity, including views of most well-known Russian politicians.

I see the subject of my study up to date, because of the search of Russian identity nowadays. Due to some changes in the internal and external politics of Russia, it brought some changes in the order of states, as well as it influenced the identity of Russia, the way how the other states see Russian nation, and how the identity in Russia is formed.

I find it an interesting topic because of the constructivist theoretical implications. It is important to see Russia in the context of state formation, in the context of other states, and to see which role does Russia plays in the world politics. It is also important to understand the process, which determines the manner in which Russia interacts. It is interesting, because throughout the history, geopolitics determined Russia's stand in the world, determined its behavior, as well as provided a good economical ground for development.

Methodology

In my research, the main emphasis is on the method, which I am going to use. The main  aim is to see how it can be applied in my work, and what generalizations it may bring with it. The empirical method which I am going to use in my research is generally meant as the collection of a large amount of data on which to base a theory or derive a conclusion in science. I will use this research method as a class of research methods in which empirical observations or data are collected in order to answer particular research questions. I will start with some priori theories, which I will develop to try to explain and/or predict what happens in the real world.(Moody, 2002) The purpose of the research is to test the theory and possibly refine it. The research questions that I will ask are concerned mainly on what the identity of Russia is, and how it is viewed by Western and Russian scholars. I will define a theory of constructivism, and apply it to my research question to prove its validity.

I tried to observe some material  which explains the main theory on my topic. For example, according to Manheim, the most effective way to find an accurate answer to a research question is to employ established methods of empirical research to investigate the relationships we see in the world. Transforming our general research question into one or several specific ones requires developing some plausible explanations for what we observe.(Manheim 2002:14) One of the first problems in research is to devise ways of getting from the abstract level of our questions to some concrete observation that will allow us to answer them (ibid.:51). When we attempt to create possible explanations for events, we are theorizing or developing a theory. Theory building is the first stage in the research process and why it is essential that we understand the relationship between theory and research (ibid.:15). In my paper, I will question some theories, for example, constructivism, and on its basis, I will try to explain some developments of Russian state and identity. The theory which I am going to develop is the one which will seek the answer to the question: Is there Russian identity? What is Russian identity? What are the values of Russian identity? Where did it come from? My theoretical part will be discussed later on in the work. I aim to show the significance of the research question from the view of IR theory, constructivism. Therefore, I will explain some issues on behalf of my concern of a theory, and will write on the topic of construction of an identity from a theoretical perspective. Later on, I will see how the issue is seen in the eyes of scholars and politicians, as well as I will apply theoretical views on the issues of Russian identity and nation-building, answering the question of construction of identity.

The quest for useful  theory begins with the decisions we make about the building blocks of theories: concepts. I will use concepts to observe my theory and give a concrete analysis of my work. I will base my study primarily on concepts, which will represent some idea. First, since we are involved in empirical  inquiry the concept must refer to phenomena that are at least potentially observable. This does not mean that all concepts must refer to directly observable things. Some of the most useful concepts in the social sciences refer to properties we cannot observe directly. (Manheim 2002: 22). Useful concepts have theoretical import. A concept has theoretical import when it is related to enough other concepts in the theory that it plays an essential role in the explanation of observed events (ibid.:23).  My concept of this work is to try to explain main questions of Russian identity, how it was established, and how it seen nowadays by Russian and Western scholars, as well as to see how this concept was developed and discussed by Russian politicians in time in Russia, and what kind of perspective I see on the basis of their ideas. My concept is to give significance to the issue of Russian identity, to enlighten it and to give my own ideas in the work. The most significant part is to discuss how the idea is constructed, and to analyze those parts of material, which have been presented. I will try to do a research based on the material, which can be very useful in creating certain concepts and theories, and I will later try to explain, why these, or that sources I found the most valuable and interesting.

I will use a theory testing which is at the center of the research process. Manheim says that because theories are generally developed from bits of knowledge about actual relationships, the tasks of theory testing are essentially those of using the theory to formulate some expectations about other relationships we have not observed and then checking to see whether actual relationships we have already observed, because showing that the theory leads us to expect the very relationships the theory was built to  explain would be no test at all. (Manheim 2002: 25) I will use my research material to analyze all the distinctive features of my research question, and will try to put them in order which is will describe all the phenomena of a theory. By doing this, I will observe all the material which is important in my research question, and will make conclusions of those parts of my work which will be the most interesting in categorizing and framing a theory.

Theories, as sets of concepts, assumptions, and propositions, are never finally proved or disproved (ibid, 2002: 26). Theory elaboration is based largely on a process of comparing hypothesized conditions with reality and, once we have results, modifying our theory so that hypotheses that can be derived from it are more and more consistent with what we observe. (ibid.) I will have a bunch of considerations in my work, which I will choose to be the most significant ones, the ones that will reflect my research question, and the ones that I will consider important.  However, I will try to consider those parts of my work which I will later use for theory elaboration, and I will compare theories to describe the phenomenon of Russian identity in the real world.

Selection of an appropriate research method is critical to success of any research project, and must be driven by the research question and the state of knowledge in the area being studied. In general, a combination of research methods may be most effective in achieving a particular research objective.(Moody 2002) In my work, the most important thing will be distinguishing, how the theory works, and how it can be used in my paper to explain phenomenon. The empirical research method in my work will include the research of materials from books, and Internet. I decided not to do an interview type of work, because all the generalizations made during the interviews were already analyzed by scholars before me, and I will present these views on the basis of their researches. However, I have chosen, in my opinion, the most significant observations, and views, to be able to describe the phenomenon of Russian identity from the angle which I find interesting.

In my work, I will use positivism, as well as interpretivism, or the qualitative approach, is a way to gain insights through discovering meanings by improving our comprehension of the whole. The underlying assumption of interpretivism is that the whole needs to be examined in order to understand a phenomena. Interpretivism is critical of the positivism because it seeks to collect and analyze data from parts of a phenomena and, in so doing, positivism can miss important aspects of a comprehensive understanding of the whole. Interpretivism proposes that there are multiple realities, not single realities of phenomena, and that these realities can differ across time and place.

Chapter I. Theoretical Implications

I.1.    Identity in Constructivism

Constructivism offers alternative understandings of number of central themes in international relations theory, including: the meaning of anarchy and balance of power, relationship between state identity and interest,  and prospects for change in world politics. Constructivism assumes that actors and structures mutually constitute each other; anarchy must be interpreted to have meaning; state interest are part of the process of identity construction; power is both material and discursive; and change in world politics is both possible and difficult (Hopf, 1998:171). For constructivists there is no “logic” of anarchy apart from the practices that create and instantiate one structure of identities and interests rather than another; structure has no existence or causal powers apart from process. Self-help and power politics are institutions, not essential features of anarchy. Anarchy is what states make of it (Wendt, 1992:395). Identities are important, then institutions, balance of power, sovereignty etc. These features form state’s identity. Constructivism insight that anarchy is what state makes of it, implies that there are many different understandings of anarchy in the world. To make an example, in history of Russia, there has always been some attempts to organise “revolution from above”. Some were successful. This anarchic type of behaviour inside of state is an example of what Russian state makes of it.

From constructivist’s point of view, identities are necessary in international politics in order to ensure some level of predictability and order. A world without identities is a world of chaos, a world of uncertainty. Identities perform necessary functions in a society: they tell you and others who you are and they tell you who others are. A state understands others according to the identity it attributes to them, and reproduces its own identity. (Hopf, 1998:174).  The way Russia sees itself in the world order is a way in which the state is recognised. It plays on the world stage as a power which has its word to say in the world politics. Identity of Russia produced during the history has been re-valued and judged by politicians. Formation of Russian identity on the world scale is state behaviour. The way it behaves is very important for keeping the world peace and security. Relations with foreign countries is part of behaviour of Russian state. From the perspective of Constructivists, Behaviour, Interests and Identities of the state interact largely with Ideas, Meaning and the Rules in the context of state system. Therefore, what Russian state produces in the context of its political and economic system, and which rules and ideas it applies to the behaviour and interest of state, it forms largely an identity of Russia.

At the same time, Russian identity has been formed throughout the years of history and historical change. Russian state established itself as a strong power, which role in politics was significantly made-up in history, and gained its continuity in Russian modern state. Russian identity has been produced via many factors, for example Russian  people, culture, language, historical events, etc. Its great variety of Russian identity as such has been underlined by historians in Russia and the West.

A state identity is formed in a system of states. Hopf  assumes that constructivism, while expecting to uncover differences, identities and multiple understandings, still assumes that it can specify a set of conditions under which one can expect to see one identity or another (Hopf, 1998). In this respect, I would propose that throughout the history of Russia, it has formed its behaviour, interests, and actions in the world. It has gone through many changes. On every phase of change, it has formed its position, and therefore Russian identity in the world system. For example,  identity of Soviet Union was understood by a Western world as Russia during the existence of the USSR, despite the fact that the Soviet Union was trying hard not to have that identity. European identities were incomplete until they encountered peoples in the Americas and India respectively. The necessity of difference with an other to produce one’s own identity is important (Hopf, ibid.). On the other hand, to see the identity of Russia more clearly, we must look on its place in the world system. To say that it is Europe, and to choose the way to analyse it from the European perspective, is a way to get to know Russia in common world system. To see it from different perspectives, it means to accept that Russia has its own specific roots which distinguish it from European states. To know that it has deep roots in history and culture, is to make an understanding of what Russia is itself, to recognise its own national self-identity.

Constructivism assumes that the selves or identities of states are a variable; they likely depend on historical, cultural, political, and social context (Hopf, ibid.) Constructivism proposes a way of understanding how nationalism, ethnicity, race, gender, religion,  and other intersubjectively understood communities, are each involved in an account of global politics. In case of Russia, these factors are very broad. Russia is a multinational state, with the whole variety of ethnicities, religions, communities, etc. Identity gives Russia its variety and a certain superiority.

An equally important part of the intersubjective nature of international relations is the operation of actors within generally accepted patterns for behavior known as norms. Norms define the context in which the action or decision is being made. In constructivist model, norms provide definition to the theoretical anarchy involved in interstate relations and, as reinforced by compliance in action, will help produce predictability and order particularly between actors whose identities include shared norms. Understanding of the identity, norms and context for the other actor or actors involved.  Norms provide the closest approximation to what classical theorists call structure. Constructivist reasoning accounts for and depends on information and the power of discourse for validity. Communicated ideas and information largely define identity. Change in a system of identity and norms can be difficult and slow, but the rising power and availability of information clearly demonstrates that change can occur[1].  Russia strictly follows the norms, which states oblige to follow. These norms are compounds of state norms inside of the country, and they work also on the international level.  They are usually predictable, sometimes not, which worsens  Russian attitude in the world system. These are stable norms, which every day signify the same and work for the enrichment of Russian state. When sometimes norms were not followed as in the Soviet Union, Russia has experienced a full number of sanctions, put on by international institutions. Therefore, for the last ten years , Russia has been a good follower of internationally advised rules and was flexible to all  restrictions.

Страницы: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5