BRITISH MONARCHY AND ITS INFLUENCE UPON GOVERNMENTAL INSTITUTIONS

(1216–1272)

WILLIAM I «THE CONQUEROR» (1066-1087)

Born around 1028, William was the illegitimate son of Duke Robert I of

Normandy, and Herleve (also known as Arlette), daughter of a tanner in

Falaise. Known as 'William the Bastard' to his contemporaries, his

illegitimacy shaped his career when he was young. On his father's death in

1035, William was recognised by his family as the heir - an exception to

the general rule that illegitimacy barred succession. His great uncle

looked after the Duchy during William's minority, and his overlord, King

Henry I of France, knighted him at the age of 15. From 1047 onwards,

William successfully dealt with rebellion inside Normandy involving his

kinsmen and threats from neighbouring nobles, including attempted invasions

by his former ally King Henry I of France in 1054 (the French forces were

defeated at the Battle of Mortemer) and 1057. William's military successes

and reputation helped him to negotiate his marriage to Mathilda, daughter

of Count Baldwin V of Flanders. At the time of his invasion of England,

William was a very experienced and ruthless military commander, ruler and

administrator who had unified Normandy and inspired fear and respect

outside his duchy. William's claim to the English throne was based on his

assertion that, in 1051, Edward the Confessor had promised him the throne

(he was a distant cousin) and that Harold II - having sworn in 1064 to

uphold William's right to succeed to that throne - was therefore a usurper.

Furthermore, William had the support of Emperor Henry IV and papal

approval. William took seven months to prepare his invasion force, using

some 600 transport ships to carry around 7,000 men (including 2,000-3,000

cavalry) across the Channel. On 28 September 1066, with a favourable wind,

William landed unopposed at Pevensey and, within a few days, raised

fortifications at Hastings. Having defeated an earlier invasion by the King

of Norway at the Battle of Stamford Bridge near York in late September,

Harold undertook a forced march south, covering 250 miles in some nine days

to meet the new threat, gathering inexperienced reinforcements to replenish

his exhausted veterans as he marched. At the Battle of Senlac (near

Hastings) on 14 October, Harold's weary and under-strength army faced

William's cavalry (part of the forces brought across the Channel) supported

by archers. Despite their exhaustion, Harold's troops were equal in number

(they included the best infantry in Europe equipped with their terrible two-

handled battle axes) and they had the battlefield advantage of being based

on a ridge above the Norman positions. The first uphill assaults by the

Normans failed and a rumour spread that William had been killed; William

rode among the ranks raising his helmet to show he was still alive. The

battle was close-fought: a chronicler described the Norman counter-attacks

and the Saxon defence as 'one side attacking with all mobility, the other

withstanding as though rooted to the soil'. Three of William's horses were

killed under him. William skilfully co-ordinated his archers and cavalry,

both of which the English forces lacked. During a Norman assault, Harold

was killed - hit by an arrow and then mowed down by the sword of a mounted

knight. Two of his brothers were also killed. The demoralised English

forces fled. (In 1070, as penance, William had an abbey built on the site

of the battle, with the high altar occupying the spot where Harold fell.

The ruins of Battle Abbey, and the town of Battle, which grew up around it,

remain.) William was crowned on Christmas Day 1066 in Westminster Abbey.

Three months later, he was confident enough to return to Normandy leaving

two joint regents (one of whom was his half-brother Odo, Bishop of Bayeux,

who was later to commission the Bayeux Tapestry) behind to administer the

kingdom. However, it took William six years to consolidate his conquest,

and even then he had to face constant plotting and fighting on both sides

of the Channel. In 1068, Harold's sons raided the south-west coast of

England (dealt with by William's local commanders), and there were

uprisings in the Welsh Marches, Devon and Cornwall. William appointed earls

who, in Wales and in all parts of the kingdom, undertook to guard the

threatened frontiers and maintain internal security in return for land. In

1069, the Danes, in alliance with Prince Edgar the Aetheling (Ethelred's

great-grandson) and other English nobles, invaded the north and took York.

Taking personal charge, and pausing only to deal with the rising at

Stafford, William drove the Danes back to their ships on the Humber. In a

harsh campaign lasting into 1070, William systematically devastated Mercia

and Northumbria to deprive the Danes of their supplies and prevent recovery

of English resistance. Churches and monasteries were burnt, and

agricultural land was laid to waste, creating a famine for the unarmed and

mostly peasant population which lasted at least nine years. Although the

Danes were bribed to leave the north, King Sweyn of Denmark and his ships

threatened the east coast (in alliance with various English, including

Hereward the Wake) until a treaty of peace was concluded in June 1070.

Further north, where the boundary with Scotland was unclear, King Malcolm

III was encroaching into England. Yet again, William moved swiftly and

moved land and sea forces north to invade Scotland. The Treaty of Abernethy

in 1072 marked a truce, which was reinforced by Malcolm's eldest son being

accepted as a hostage. William consolidated his conquest by starting a

castle-building campaign in strategic areas. Originally these castles were

wooden towers on earthen 'mottes' (mounds) with a bailey (defensive area)

surrounded by earth ramparts, but many were later rebuilt in stone. By the

end of William's reign over 80 castles had been built throughout his

kingdom, as a permanent reminder of the new Norman feudal order. William's

wholesale confiscation of land from English nobles and their heirs (many

nobles had died at the battles of Stamford Bridge and Senlac) enabled him

to recruit and retain an army, by demanding military duties in exchange for

land tenancy granted to Norman, French and Flemish allies. He created up to

180 'honours' (lands scattered through shires, with a castle as the

governing centre), and in return had some 5,000 knights at his disposal to

repress rebellions and pursue campaigns; the knights were augmented by

mercenaries and English infantry from the Anglo-Saxon militia, raised from

local levies. William also used the fyrd, the royal army - a military

arrangement which had survived the Conquest. The King's tenants-in-chief in

turn created knights under obligation to them and for royal duties (this

was called subinfeudation), with the result that private armies centred

around private castles were created - these were to cause future problems

of anarchy for unfortunate or weak kings. By the end of William's reign, a

small group of the King's tenants had acquired about half of England's

landed wealth. Only two Englishmen still held large estates directly from

the King. A foreign aristocracy had been imposed as the new governing

class. The expenses of numerous campaigns, together with an economic slump

(caused by the shifts in landed wealth, and the devastation of northern

England for military and political reasons), prompted William to order a

full-scale investigation into the actual and potential wealth of the

kingdom to maximise tax revenues. The Domesday survey was prompted by

ignorance of the state of land holding in England, as well as the result of

the costs of defence measures in England and renewed war in France. The

scope, speed, efficiency and completion of this survey was remarkable for

its time and resulted in the two-volume Domesday Book of 1086, which still

exists today. William needed to ensure the direct loyalty of his feudal

tenants. The 1086 Oath of Salisbury was a gathering of William's 170

tenants-in-chief and other important landowners who took an oath of fealty

to William. William's reach extended elsewhere into the Church and the

legal system. French superseded the vernacular (Anglo-Saxon). Personally

devout, William used his bishops to carry out administrative duties.

Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury from 1070, was a first-class

administrator who assisted in government when William was absent in France,

and who reorganised the Church in England. Having established the primacy

of his archbishopric over that of York, and with William's approval,

Lanfranc excommunicated rebels, and set up Church or spiritual courts to

deal with ecclesiastical matters. Lanfranc also replaced English bishops

and abbots (some of whom had already been removed by the Council of

Winchester under papal authority) with Norman or French clergy to reduce

potential political resistance. In addition, Canterbury and Durham

Cathedrals were rebuilt and some of the bishops' sees were moved to urban

centres. At his coronation, William promised to uphold existing laws and

customs. The Anglo-Saxon shire courts and 'hundred' courts (which

administered defence and tax, as well as justice matters) remained intact,

as did regional variations and private Anglo-Saxon jurisdictions. To

strengthen royal justice, William relied on sheriffs (previously smaller

landowners, but replaced by influential nobles) to supervise the

administration of justice in existing county courts, and sent members of

his own court to conduct important trials. However, the introduction of

Church courts, the mix of Norman/Roman law and the differing customs led to

a continuing complex legal framework. More severe forest laws reinforced

William's conversion of the New Forest into a vast Royal deer reserve.

These laws caused great resentment, and to English chroniclers the New

Forest became a symbol of William's greed. Nevertheless the King maintained

peace and order. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 1087 declared 'he was a very

stern and violent man, so no one dared do anything contrary to his will ...

Amongst other things the good security he made in this country is not to be

forgotten.' William spent the last months of his reign in Normandy,

fighting a counter-offensive in the French Vexin territory against King

Philip's annexation of outlying Normandy territory. Before his death on 9

September 1087, William divided his 'Anglo-Norman' state between his sons.

(The scene was set for centuries of expensive commitments by successive

English monarchs to defend their inherited territories in France.) William

bequeathed Normandy as he had promised to his eldest son Robert, despite

their bitter differences (Robert had sided with his father's enemies in

Normandy, and even wounded and defeated his father in a battle there in

1079). His son, William Rufus, was to succeed William as King of England,

and the third remaining son, Henry, was left 5,000 pounds in silver.

William was buried in his abbey foundation of St Stephen at Caen.

Desecrated by Huguenots (1562) and Revolutionaries (1793), the burial place

of the first Norman king of England is marked by a simple stone slab.

WILLIAM II (KNOWN AS WILLIAM RUFUS) (1087-1100)

Strong, outspoken and ruddy (hence his nickname 'Rufus'), William II

(reigned 1087-1100) extended his father's policies, taking royal power to

the far north of England. Ruthless in his relations with his brother

Robert, William extended his grip on the duchy of Normandy under an

agreement between the brothers in 1091. (Robert went on crusade in 1096.)

William's relations with the Church were not easy; he took over

Archbishop Lanfranc's revenues after the latter's death in 1089, kept other

bishoprics vacant to make use of their revenues, and had numerous arguments

with Lanfranc's popular successor, Anselm. William died on 2 August 1100,

after being shot by an arrow whilst hunting in the New Forest.

HENRY I (1100-1135)

William's younger brother Henry succeeded to the throne. He was crowned

three days after his brother's death, against the possibility that his

eldest brother Robert might claim the English throne. After the decisive

battle of Tinchebrai in 1106 in France, Henry completed his conquest of

Normandy from Robert, who then (unusually even for that time) spent the

last 28 years of his life as his brother's prisoner. An energetic,

decisive and occasionally cruel ruler, Henry centralised the administration

of England and Normandy in the royal court, using 'viceroys' in Normandy

and a group of advisers in England to act on his behalf when he was absent

across the Channel. Henry successfully sought to increase royal revenues,

as shown by the official records of his exchequer (the Pipe Roll of 1130,

the first exchequer account to survive). He established peaceful relations

with Scotland, through his marriage to Mathilda of Scotland. Henry's name

'Beauclerc' denoted his good education (as the youngest son, his parents

possibly expected that he would become a bishop); Henry was probably the

first Norman king to be fluent in English. In 1120, his legitimate sons

William and Richard drowned in the White Ship which sank in the English

Channel. This posed a succession problem, as Henry never allowed any of his

illegitimate children to expect succession to either England or Normandy.

Henry had a legitimate daughter Matilda (widow of Emperor Henry V,

subsequently married to the Count of Anjou). However, it was his nephew

Stephen (reigned 1135-54), son of William the Conqueror's daughter Adela,

who succeeded Henry after his death, allegedly caused by eating too many

lampreys (fish) in 1135, as the barons mostly opposed the idea of a female

ruler.

STEPHEN AND MATILDA (1135-1154)

Though charming, attractive and (when required) a brave warrior, Stephen

(reigned 1135-54) lacked ruthlessness and failed to inspire loyalty. He

could neither control his friends nor subdue his enemies, despite the

support of his brother Henry of Blois (Bishop of Winchester) and his able

wife Matilda of Boulogne. Henry I's daughter Matilda invaded England in

1139 to claim the throne, and the country was plunged into civil war.

Although anarchy never spread over the whole country, local feuds were

pursued under the cover of the civil war; the bond between the King and the

nobles broke down, and senior figures (including Stephen's brother Henry)

freely changed allegiances as it suited them. In 1141, Stephen was captured

at Lincoln and his defeat seemed certain. However, Matilda's arrogant

behaviour antagonised even her own supporters (Angevins), and Stephen was

released in exchange for her captured ally and illegitimate half-brother,

Earl Robert of Gloucester. After the latter's death in 1147, Matilda

retired to Normandy (which her husband, the Count of Anjou had conquered)

in 1148. Stephen's throne was still disputed. Matilda's eldest son, Henry,

who had been given Normandy by his father in 1150 and who had married the

heiress Eleanor Duchess of Aquitaine, invaded England in 1149 and again in

1153. Stephen fought stubbornly against Henry; Stephen even attempted to

ensure his son Eustace's succession by having him crowned in Stephen's own

lifetime. The Church refused (having quarrelled with the king some years

previously); Eustace's death later in 1153 helped lead to a negotiated

peace (the treaty of Wallingford) under which Henry would inherit the

throne after Stephen's death.

THE ANGEVINS

Henry II, the son of Geoffrey Plantagenet and Henry I's daughter

Matilda, was the first in a long line of 14 Plantagenet kings, stretching

from Henry II's accession through to Richard III's death in 1485. Within

that line, however, four distinct Royal Houses can be identified: Angevin,

Plantagenet, Lancaster and York.

The first Angevin King, Henry II, began the period as arguably the most

powerful monarch in Europe, with lands stretching from the Scottish borders

to the Pyrenees. In addition, Ireland was added to his inheritance, a

mission entrusted to him by Pope Adrian IV (the only English Pope). A new

administrative zeal was evident at the beginning of the period and an

efficient system of government was formulated. The justice system

developed. However there were quarrels with the Church, which became more

powerful following the murder of Thomas а Becket.

As with many of his predecessors, Henry II spent much of his time away

from England fighting abroad. This was taken to an extreme by his son

Richard, who spent only 10 months of a ten-year reign in the country due to

his involvement in the crusades. The last of the Angevin kings was John,

whom history has judged harshly. By 1205, six years into his reign, only a

fragment of the vast Angevin empire acquired by Henry II remained. John

quarrelled with the Pope over the appointment of the Archbishop of

Canterbury, eventually surrendering. He was also forced to sign the Magna

Carta in 1215, which restated the rights of the church, the barons and all

in the land. John died in ignominy, having broken the contract, leading the

nobles to summon aid from France and creating a precarious position for his

heir, Henry III.

HENRY II CURTMANTLE (1154-1189)

Henry II ruled over an empire which stretched from the Scottish border

to the Pyrenees. One of the strongest, most energetic and imaginative

rulers, Henry was the inheritor of three dynasties who had acquired

Aquitaine by marriage; his charters listed them: 'King of the English, Duke

of the Normans and Aquitanians and Count of the Angevins'. The King spent

only 13 years of his reign in England; the other 21 years were spent on the

continent in his territories in what is now France. Henry's rapid movements

in carrying out his dynastic responsibilities astonished the French king,

who noted 'now in England, now in Normandy, he must fly rather than travel

by horse or ship'. By 1158, Henry had restored to the Crown some of the

lands and royal power lost by Stephen; Malcom IV of Scotland was compelled

to return the northern counties. Locally chosen sheriffs were changed into

royally appointed agents charged with enforcing the law and collecting

taxes in the counties. Personally interested in government and law, Henry

made use of juries and re-introduced the sending of justices (judges) on

regular tours of the country to try cases for the Crown. His legal reforms

have led him to be seen as the founder of English Common Law. Henry's

disagreements with the Archbishop of Canterbury (the king's former chief

adviser), Thomas а Becket, over Church-State relations ended in Becket's

murder in 1170 and a papal interdict on England. Family disputes over

territorial ambitions almost wrecked the king's achievements. Henry died in

France in 1189, at war with his son Richard, who had joined forces with

King Philip of France to attack Normandy.

RICHARD I COEUR DE LION ('THE LIONHEART') (1189-1199)

Henry's elder son, Richard I (reigned 1189-99), fulfilled his main

ambition by going on crusade in 1190, leaving the ruling of England to

others. After his victories over Saladin at the siege of Acre and the

battles of Arsuf and Jaffa, concluded by the treaty of Jaffa (1192),

Richard was returning from the Holy Land when he was captured in Austria.

In early 1193, Richard was transferred to Emperor Henry VI's custody. In

Richard's absence, King Philip of France failed to obtain Richard's French

possessions through invasion or negotiation. In England, Richard's brother

John occupied Windsor Castle and prepared an invasion of England by Flemish

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