THE MANAGER AS A TEACHER: SELECTED ASPECTS OF STIMULATION OF SCIENTIFIC THINKING
The principle of goal-setting.
A car is intended for transportation, a calculator – for calculations, a lantern – for
illumination, etc. But the goal of transportation is needed not for the car but
for someone or something external with respect to it. The car only needs its ability
to implement the function in order to achieve this goal. The goal is to meet
the need of something external in something, and this system only implements
the goal while serving this external “something”. Hence, the goal for a system
is set from the outside, and the only thing required from the system is the ability
to implement this goal. This external “something” is another system or systems,
because the World is tamped only with systems. Goal-setting always excludes independent
choice of the goal by the system. The goal can be set to the system as the
order/command and directive. There is a difference between these concepts. The
order/command is a rigid instruction, it requires execution of just “IT” with the preset accuracy and only “IN
THAT MANNER” and not in any other way, i.e. the system is not given the “right”
to choose actions for the achievement of the goal and all its actions are
strictly defined. Directive is a milder concept, whereby the “IT” is set only the
given or approximate accuracy, but the right to choose actions is given to the
system itself. Directive can be set only to systems with well developed
management unit/control block which can make choice of necessary actions by itself. None
of the systems does possess free will and can set the goal before itself; it
comes to it from the outside. But are there any systems which are
self-sufficient and set the goals before themselves? For example, we, the people,
are sort of able of setting goals before ourselves and carry them out. Well
then, are we the example of independent systems? But it is not as simple as it may seem. There
is a dualism (dual nature) of one and the same concept of goal: the goal as the
task for some system and the goal as an aspiration (desire) of this system to execute the goal
set before it: the Goal is a task representing the need of external operating
system (super system) to achieve certain predetermined result; the Goal is an
aspiration (desire) to achieve certain result of performance of the given
system always equal to the preset result (preset by order or directive). The
fundamental point is that one super system cannot set the goal before the
system (subsystem) of other super system. It can set the goal only before this super
system which becomes a subsystem in respect of the latter. We can set the goal
before ourselves, but we always set the goal only when we are missing/lacking
something, when we suffer. Suffering is an unachieved desire. Any physiological
(hunger, thirst), aesthetic and other unachieved desires makes us suffer and
suffering forces us to aspire to act until desires are satisfied. The depth of
suffering is always equal to the intensity of desire. We want to eat and we
suffer from hunger until we satisfy this desire. As soon as we take some food,
the suffering ceases immediately. At that, the new desire arises according to
“Maslow pyramid”. Desire is our goal-aspiration. When we realize our wish we
achieve the objective/goal. If we achieve the objective we cease to act,
because the goal is achieved and the wish disappears. If we have everything we
can only think of, we will not set any goals before ourselves, because there is
nothing to wish, since we have everything. Therefore, even a human being with
all its complexity and developmental evolution cannot be absolutely independent
of other systems (of external environment). Our goals-tasks are always set
before us by the external environment and it incites our desire (goal-aspiration)
which is dictated by shortage of something. We are free to choose our actions to
achieve the goal, but it is at this point where we are limited by our possibilities.
We do not set the goal-task, we set the goals-aspirations. Then if it is not us, can there be other
systems which can set goals before themselves regardless of whatsoever?
Perhaps, starting from any certain level of complication the systems can do it
themselves? Such examples are unknown to us. For any however large and
difficult system there might be another, even higher system found which will
dictate the former its goals and conditions. Nature is integrated and
almost put in (good) order. It is “almost” put in order, because at the
level of quantum phenomena there is probably some uncertainty and
unpredictability, i.e. unconformity of the phenomena to our knowledge of
physical laws (for example, tunnel effects). It is this unpredictability which is
the cause of contingencies and unpredictability. Contingency /stochasticity and
purposefulness are mutually exclusive.
Principle of
performance of action. Any system is intended for any well defined and concrete
goal specific for it, and for this purpose it performs only specific (target-oriented)
actions. Hence, the goal of a system is the aspiration to perform certain
purposeful actions for the achievement of target-oriented (appropriate) result
of action. The plane is designed for air transportation, but cannot float; for
this purpose there is an amphibian aircraft. The result of aircraft performance
is moving by air. This result of action is expectable and predictable. The
constancy and predictability of functional performance is a distinctive feature
of any systems – living, natural, social, financial, technical, etc.
Consequently, in order to achieve the goal any object of our World should function, make
any purposeful actions, operations (in this case the purposeful, deliberate
inaction is in some sense an action, too). Action is manifestation of some
energy, activity, as well as force itself, the functioning of something;
condition, process arising in response to some influence, stimulant/irritant,
impression (for example, reaction in psychology, chemical reactions, nuclear
reactions). The object’s action is followed by the result of action (not always
expected, but always logical and conditioned). The purpose of any system is the
aspiration to yield appropriate (targeted) result of action. At that, the given
object is the donor of the result of action. The result of action of donor
system can be directed towards any other system which in this case will be the
recipient (target) for the result of action. In this case the result of action
of the donor system becomes the external influence for the recipient system.
Interaction between the systems is carried out only through the results of
action. In that way the chain of actions is built as follows: ... →
(external influence) → result of action (external influence) →...
The system produces single result of action for single external influence. No
object operates in itself. It cannot decide on its own “Here now I will start
to operate” because it has no freedom of will and it cannot set the goal before
itself and produce the result of action on its own. It can only react (act) in response
to certain external influence. Any actions of any objects are always their
reaction to something. Any influence causes response/reaction. Lack of
influence causes no reaction. Reaction can sometimes be delayed, therefore it may
seem causeless. But if one digs and delves, it is always possible to find the cause,
i.e. external influence. Cognition of the world only falls to our lot through the
reactions of its elements. Reaction (from Latin “re” – return and “actio”
- action) is an action, condition, process arising in response to some
influence, irritant/stimulant, impression (for example, reaction in psychology,
chemical reactions, nuclear reactions). Consequently, the system’s action in response
to the external influence is the reaction of the system. When the system has
worked (responded) and the required result of action has been received, it
means that it has already achieved (“quenched”) the goal and after that it has
no any more goal to aspire to. Reaction is always secondary and occurs only and
only following the external influence exerted upon the element. Reaction can
sometimes occur after a long time following the external influence if, for
example, the given element has been specially “programmed” for the delay. But
it will surely occur, provided that the force of the external influence exceeds
the threshold of the element’s sensitivity to the external influence and that
the element is capable to respond to the given influence in general. If the element is able
of reacting to pressure above 1 atmosphere it will necessarily react if the pressure
is in excess of 1 atmosphere. If the pressure is less than 1 atmosphere it will
not react to the lower pressure. If it is influenced by temperature, humidity
or electric induction, it will also not react, howsoever we try to “persuade” it,
as it is only capable to react to pressure higher than 1 atmosphere. In no
pressure case (no pressure above 1 atmosphere), it will never react. Since
the result of the system’s performance appears only following some external
influence, it is always secondary, because the external influence is primary.
External influence is the cause and the result of action is a consequence
(function). It is obvious that donor systems can produce one or several results
of action, while the recipient systems may only react to one or several external
influences. But donor elements can interact with the recipient systems only in
case of qualitatively homogeneous actions. If the recipient systems can react
only to pressure, then the systems able of interacting with them may be those
which result of action is pressure, but not temperature, electric current or
something else. Interaction between donor systems and recipient systems is only
possible in case of qualitative uniformity (homoreactivity, the principle of homogeneous
interactivity). We can listen to the performance of the musician on a stage
first of all because we have ears. The earthworm is not able to understand our
delight from the performance of the musician at least for the reason that it has
no ears, it cannot perceive a sound and it has no idea about a sound even if
(hypothetically) it could have an intelligence equal to ours. The result of
action of the recipient element can be both homogeneous (homoreactive) and non-homogeneous,
unequal in terms of quality of action (heteroreactive) of external influence in
respect of it. For example, the element reacts to pressure, and its result of
action can be either pressure or temperature, or frequency, or a stream/flow of
something, or the number of inhabitants of the forest (apartment, city, country)
etc. Hence, the reaction of an element to the external influence can be both homoreactive
and heteroreactive. In the first case the elements are the action transmitters,
in the second case they are converters of quality of action. If the result of the
system’s actions completely corresponds to the implementation of goal, it
speaks of the sufficiency of this system (the given group of interacting elements)
for the given purpose. If not, the given group of elements mismatches the given
goal/purpose and/or is insufficient, or is not the proper system for the achievement
of a degree of quality and quantity of the preset goal. Therefore, any existing
object can be characterized by answering the basic question: “What can the
given object do?” This question characterizes the concept of the “result of
action of an object” which in turn consists of two subquestions: What action
can be done by given object? (the quality of result of action); How much of such
action can be done by the given object? (the quantity of result of action).
These two subquestions characterize the aspiration of a system to implement the
goal. And the goal-setting may be characterized by answering another question:
“What should the given object do?” which also consists of two subquestions:
what action should the given object do? (the quality of the result of action);
how much of such action should the given object do? (the quantity of the result
of action). These last two subquestions are the ones that determine the goal as a task
(the order/command, the instruction) for the given object or group of objects,
and the system is being sought or built to achieve this goal. The closer the correspondence
between what should and what can be done by the given object, the closer the
given object is to the ideal system. The real result of action of the system
should correspond to preset (expected) result. This correspondence is the basic
characteristic of any system. Wide variety of systems may be built of a very
limited number of elements. All the diverse material physical universe is built
of various combinations of protons, electrons and neutrons and these
combinations are the systems with specific goals/purposes. We do not know the taste
of protons, neutrons and electrons, but we do know the taste of sugar which
molecular atoms are composed of these elements. Same elements are the constructional
material of both the human being and a stone. The result of the action of pendulum
would be just swaying, but not secretion of hormones, transmission of impulse,
etc. Hence, its goal/purpose and result of action is nothing more but only swaying
at constant frequency. The symphonic orchestra can only play pieces of music,
but not build, fight or merchandize, etc. Generator of random numbers should
generate only random numbers. If all of a sudden it starts generate series of
interdependent numbers, it will cease to be the generator of random numbers.
Real and ideal systems differ from each other in that the former always have
additional properties determined by the imperfection of real systems. Massive
golden royal seal, for example, may be used to crack nuts just as well as by
means of a hammer or a plain stone, but it is intended for other purpose.
Therefore, as it has already been noted above, the concept of “system” is
relative, but not absolute, depending on correspondence between what should and
what can be done by the given object. If the object can implement the goal set
before it, it is the system intended for the achievement of this goal. If it cannot
do so, it is not the system for the given goal, but can be a system intended
for other goals. It does not mater for the achievement of the goal what the
system consists of, but what is important is what it can do. In any case the possibility
to implement the goal determines the system. Therefore, the system is determined
not by the structure of its elements, but by the extent of precision/accuracy
of implementation of the expected result. What is important is the result of
action, rather than the way it was achieved. Absolutely different elements may
be used to build the systems for the solution of identical problems (goals).
The sum of US$200 in the form of US$1 value coins each and the check for the same amount
can perform the same action (may be used to make the same purchase), although they
consist of different elements. In one case it is metal disks with the engraved
signs, while in other case it is a piece of a paper with the text drawn on it.
Hence, they are systems named “money” with identical purposes, provided that
they may be used for purchase and sale without taking into account, for
example, conveniences of carrying them over or a guarantee against theft. But
the more conditions are stipulated, the less number of elements are suitable
for the achievement of the goal. If we, for example, need large amount of money,
say, US$1.000.000 in cash,
and want it not to be bulky and the guarantee that it is not
counterfeit we will only accept US$100 bank notes received only from bank. The
more the goal is specified, the less is the choice of elements suitable for it.
Thus, the system is determined by the correspondence of the goal set to the
result of its action. The goal is both the task for an object (what it should
make) and its aspiration or desire (what it aspires to). If the given group of
elements can realize this goal, it is a system for the achievement of the goal
set. If it cannot realize this goal, it is not the system intended for the achievement
of the given goal, although it can be the system for the achievement of other goals.
The system operates for the achievement of the goal. Actually, the system transforms
through its actions the goal into the result of action, thus spending its energy.
Look around and everything you’ll see are someone’s materialized goals and
realized desires. On a large scale everything that populates our World is
systems and just systems, and all of them are intended for a wide range of
various purposes. But we do not always know the purposes of many of these
systems and therefore not all objects are perceived by us as systems.
Reactions of systems to similar external influences are always constant,
because the goal is always determined and constant. Therefore, the result of
action should always be determined, i.e. identical and constant (a principle of
consistency of correspondence of the system’s action result to the appropriate
result), and for this purpose the system’s actions should be the same (the
principle of a constancy of correspondence of actual actions of the system to
the due ones). If the result fails to be constant it cannot be appropriate and
equal to the preset result (the principle of consistency/permanency of the result
of action). The conservation law proceeds/results/ from the principle
of consistency/permanency of action. Let us call the permanency of reaction “purposefulness”,
as maintaining the similarity (permanency/consistency) of reaction is the goal
of a system. Hence, the law of conservation is determined by the goal/purpose. The
things conserved would be those only, which correspond to the achievement of
the system’s goal. This includes both actions per se and the sequence of actions
and elements needed to perform these actions, and the energy spent for the performance
of these actions, because the system would seek to maintain its movement towards
the goal and this movement will be purposeful. Therefore, the purpose determines
the conservation law and the law of cause-and-effect limitations (see below), rather
than other way round. The conservation law is one of the organic, if not the
most fundamental, laws of our universe. One of particular consequences of the conservation
law is that the substance never emerges from nothing and does not transform
into nothing (the law of conservation of matter). It always exists. It might
have been non-existent before origination of the World, if there was origination
of the World per se, and it might not be existent after its end, if it is to
end, but in our World it
does neither emerge, nor disappear. A matter is substance and
energy. The substance (deriving from the /Rus/ word “thing”,
“object” ) may exist in various combinations of its forms (liquid, solid,
gaseous and other, as well as various bodies), including the living forms. But
matter is always some kind of objects, from elementary particles to galaxies, including living
objects.Substance consists of elements. Some forms of substances may turn into
others (chemical, nuclear and other structural transformations) at the expense
of regrouping of elements by change of ties between them. Physical form of the conservation law
is represented by Einstein’s formula. A substance may turn into energy and other
way round. Energy (from Greek “energeia” - action, activity) is the general
quantitative measure of movement and interaction of all kinds of matter. Energy
in nature does not arise from anything and does not disappear; it only can change
its one form into another. The concept of energy brings all natural phenomena
together. Interaction between the systems or between the elements of systems is
in effect the link between them. From the standpoint of system, energy is the
measure (quantity) of interaction between the elements of the system or between
the systems which needs to be accomplished for the establishment of link
between them. For example, one watt may be material measure of energy. Measures
of energy in other systems, such as social, biological, mental and other, are not yet
developed. Any objects represent the systems, therefore interactions between
them are interactions between the systems. But systems are formed at the
expense of interaction between their elements and formations of inter-element relations
between them. In the process of interaction between the systems intersystem relations
are established. Any action, including interaction, needs energy. Therefore, when
establishing relations/links/ the energy is being “input”. Consequently, as
interaction between the elements of the system or different systems is the
relation/link between them, the latter is the energy-related concept. In other
words, when creating a system from elements and its restructuring from simple
into complex, the energy is spent for the establishment of new relations /links
/connections between the elements. When the system is destructed the links
between the elements collapse and energy is released. Systems are conserved at
the expense of energy of relations/links between its elements. It is the internal
energy of a system. When these relations/links are destructed the energy is released,
but the system itself as an object disappears. Consequently, the internal
energy of a system is the energy of relations/link between the elements of the
system. In endothermic reactions the energy used for the establishment of
connections/links/relations comes to the system from the outside. In exothermic
reactions internal energy of the system is released at the expense of rupture
of these connections between its internal own elements which already existed prior
to the moment when reaction occurred. But when the connection is already
formed, by virtue of conservation law its energy is not changed any more, if no
influence is exerted upon the system. For example, in establishing of
connections/links between the two nuclei of deuterium (2D2) the nucleus 1Не4 is
formed and the energy is released (for the purpose of simplicity details are omitted,
for example, reaction proton-proton). And the 1Не4 nucleus mass becomes slightly
less than the sum of masses of two deuterium nuclei by the value multiple of the
energy released, in accordance with the physical expression of the conservation
law. Thus, in process of merge of deuterium nuclei part of their intra-nuclear bonds
collapses and it is for this reason that the merge of these nuclei becomes
possible. The energy of connection between the elements of deuterium nuclei is much
stronger than that of the bond between the two deuterium nuclei. Therefore, when
part of connections between elements of deuterium nuclei is destructed the
energy is released, part of it being used for thermonuclear synthesis, i.e. the
establishment of connection/bond between the two deuterium nuclei (extra-nuclear
connection/bond in respect to deuterium nuclei), while other part is released
outside helium nucleus. But our World is tamped not only with matter. Other
objects, including social, spiritual, cultural, biological, medical and others,
are real as well. Their reality is manifested in that they can actively
influence both each other and other kinds of matter (through the performance of
other systems and human beings). And they also exist and perform not
chaotically, but are subjected to specific, though strict laws of existence. The
law of conservation applies to them as well, because they possess their own
kinds of “energy” and they did not come into being in a day, but may only turn
one into another. Any system can be described in terms of qualitative and
quantitative characteristics. Unlike material objects, the behavior of other objects
can be described nowadays only qualitatively, as they for the present the have
no their own “thermodynamics”, for example, “psychodynamics”. We do not know,
for example, what quantity of “Watt” of spiritual energy needs to be applied to
solve difficult psychological problem, but we know that spiritual energy is
needed for such a solution. Nevertheless, these objects are the full-value systems
as well, and they are structured based on the same principles as other material
systems. As systems are the groups of elements, and changes of forms of
substances represent the change of connections/bonds between the elements of substance,
then changes of forms of substances represent the changes of forms of systems.
Hence, the form is determined by the specificity of connections/bonds/ties
between the elements of systems. “Nothing in this world lasts for ever”, the
world is continually changing, whereby one kind of forms of matter turn into
other, but it is only forms that vary, while matter is indestructible and
always conserved. At the same time, alteration of forms is also subjected to
the law of conservation and it is this law that determines the way in which one
kind of forms should replace other forms of matter. Forms only alter on account
of change of connections/ties between the elements of systems. As far as each
connection between the system elements has energetic equivalent, any system
contains internal energy which is the sum of energies of connections/bonds
between all elements. The “form: (Latin, philos.) is a totality of relations determining
the object. The form is contraposed to matter, the content of an object. According
to Aristotle, the form is the actuating force that forms the objects and exists
beyond the latter. According to Kant, form is everything brought in by the
subject of cognition to the content of the cognizable matter - space, time and substance
of the form of cognitive ability; all categories of thinking: quantity,
quality, relation, substance, place, time, etc., are forms, the product of
ability of abstraction, formation of general concepts of our intellect.
However, these are not quite correct definitions. The form cannot be contraposed
to matter because it is inseparably linked with the latter, it is the form of matter
itself. The form cannot be a force either, although it probably pertains to
energy because it is determined by energy-bearing connections within the system.
According to Kant, form is a purely subjective concept, as it only correlates
with intellectual systems and their cognitive abilities. Why, do not the forms
exist without knowing them? Any system has one or other shape/look of form. And
the system’s form is determined by type and nature of connections/relations/bonds
between the system elements. Therefore, the form is a kind of connections
between the system elements. Since the systems may interact, new connections/bonds
between them are thus established and new forms of systems emerge. In other
words, in process of interaction between the systems new systems emerge as new
forms. The energy is always expended in the course of interaction between the systems.
Logic form of the conservation law is the law of cause-and-effect limitations because
it is corresponded by a logical connective “if....., then….” Possible choice of
external influences (causes) to which the system should react is limited by the
first part of this connective “if...”, whereas the actions of systems
(consequences) are limited by the second part “then...”. It is for this reason
that the law is called the law of cause-and-effect limitations. This law reads
“Any consequence has its cause /every why has a
wherefore/”. Nothing appears without the reason/cause and nothing disappears
for no special reason/cause. There are no consequences without the reason/cause,
there is no reaction without the influence. It is unambiguousness and certainty
of reaction of systems to the external influence that lays the cornerstone of determinism
in nature. Every specific cause is followed by specific consequence. The system
should always react only to certain external influences and always react only in
a certain way. Chemoreceptor intended for О2 would always react only to О2, but not to Na +, Ca ++ or glucose. At that, it will give out certain potential of
action, rather than a portion of hormone, mechanical contraction or something else.
Any system differs in specificity of the external influence and specificity of
the reaction. The certainty of external influences and the reactions to them
imposes limitations on the types of the latter. Therefore, the need in the
following arises from the law of cause-and-effect limitations: execution of any specific
(certain) action to achieve specific (certain) purpose; existence of any
specific (certain) system (subsystem) for the implementation of such action, as
no action occurs by itself; sequences of actions: the system would always start to perform
and produce the result of action only after external influence is exerted on it
because it does not have free will for making decision on the implementation of
the action. Hence, the result of the system performance can always appear only
after certain actions are done by the system. These actions can only be done
following the external influence. External influence is primary and the result
of action is secondary. Of all possible actions those will be implemented only which
are caused by external influence and limited (stipulated) by the possibilities
of the responding system. If, following the former external influence, the goal
is already achieved and there is no new external influence after delivery of the
result of action, the system should be in a state of absolute rest and not
operate, because it is only the goal that makes the system operate, and this goal
is already achieved. No purpose - no actions. If new external influence arises
a new goal appears as well, and then the system will start again to operate and new result of
action will be produced.
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