THE MANAGER AS A TEACHER: SELECTED ASPECTS OF STIMULATION OF SCIENTIFIC THINKING
Self-training
control block. No brain is able to hold enormous “knowledge bases” on all possible
conditions of the entire world around. Therefore, one of the reasons why each
species of animals occupies corresponding biosphere niche is the necessity to
limit the volume of “knowledge base”. Antelope knows what the seal does not,
and vice versa. In each separate ecological niche the quantity of possible
situations is much less, than in all ecological niches all together. Therefore,
relatively small volume of necessary knowledge is required in separate
ecological niches. However, if one tries to somehow input /in the brain/ all
the information currently available on all the situations which have
already been occurring in the world, it would not help either, because the
world alters continually and many situations have never ever arose. The
“knowledge base” basically may not have information on what has not yet
happened in the world. Naturally, the “base of decisions” cannot
contain all the possible options of decisions either. “Genetic knowledge”
contains only what the ancestors of animals have experienced. They materially
cannot have knowledge of what is going to happen. When new situation arises,
the system cannot identify, classify it and make decision on it. Even if this
situation will occur repeatedly, if the system is unable of self-training it
will every time fail to correctly identify a situation because such situations
are not contained in its “knowledge base”. The ant runs along the fence, going
up and down, and cannot guess that it is possible to easily bypass the fence.
Millions years ago, when its genetically input “knowledge base” was formed the
fences were non-existent. If one tries to sink a thread on the web the spider
will leave this web and will weave a new one because it is not familiar with
such situation and it does not know and cannot learn that it is possible to
make a hole in a web so that the thread does not interfere. All this is due to
the fact that insects as a class of animals are not capable of learning
anything. They may be perfect builders amazing us with their sophisticated and
fine webs, nests and other creations of their work. But they can only build
based on their innate knowledge. They do have “knowledge base” (instincts), but
they do not have cerebral structures (elements of control block) capable of
supplementing their own “knowledge base” with new existential situations. They
do not have reflexes on new stimuli/exciters/. To be able to identify and
classify new situations the control block should be able to enter the
descriptions of these situations in its “knowledge base”. But at first it
should be able to identify that it is a completely new situation, for example,
by comparing it to what already exists in its “knowledge base”. Then it should
identify the importance (the value worth) of this particular situation for the
achievement of its goal. If there is no any correlation between the new
situation and the fulfillment of the goal of the system, there is no sense in
remembering this situation, otherwise the brain “will be crammed with trash”.
By singling out and classifying external situations (identifying them) and
finding interrelation (correlation) between these situations, by decisions made
and the achievement of the goal of the system the control block learns to
develop appropriate decisions. Thus, the self-training decision-making block
continually supplements its “knowledge base” and “base of decisions”. But under
the conservation law nothing occurs by itself. In order for the control block
to be able to perform the above actions it should have appropriate elements.
The major element of the kind is the analyzer-correlator. It is the basis
whereon reflex on new stimulus/exciter or a new situation may emerge. Its task
is to detect a new situation, identify that it is new, determine the degree of
correlation between this situation and its own goal. If there is no correlation
between this new situation and implementation of the goal by the system, there
is no sense in remembering and loading its limited “database” memory. If the
degree of correlation is high it is necessary to enter this situation in the
“knowledge base” and develop a decision on the choice of own actions for the
achievement of its own goal and thereafter to define whether there is
correlation between the decision made and the achievement of the goal. If there
is no correlation between the decision made and the fulfillment of the goal by
the system it is necessary to arrive at other solution and again determine the
correlation between the decision made and the achievement of the goal. And it
should be repeated in that way until sufficiently high correlation between the
decision made and the achievement of goal is obtained. Only afterwards the
correct computed decision should be entered into the “base of decisions”. This
is the essence of self-training. Only the analyzer-correlator enables
self-training process. As a matter of fact, the system’s self-training means
the emergence of reflexes to new stimuli/exciters or situations. Consequently,
these are only possible when the control block contains analyzer-correlator.
Biological analogue of the analyzer-correlator is the cerebral cortex. The
presence of cortex determines the possibility of emergence of reflexes to new
situations. Cerebral cortex is only present in animals which represent
sufficiently high level of development. Non-biological analogues of systems
with such self-training control block are unknown to us. Computer self-training
systems are built by man and the process of self-training at the end of the day
always involves human cerebral cortex. There exist various so-called
“intellectual” systems, but full-fledged intelligence is only inherent in human
being. Let us specify that there are no self-training systems, but there are
their self-training control blocks, because executive elements cannot be
trained in anything. There may be systems with simple executive elements, but
with control blocks of varying complexity. In order for the control block to be
a self-training structure it should contain three types of analyzers: the
analyzer-informant with “database”; the analyzer-classifier with the “knowledge
base” and “base of decisions” (which is able of classifying external situation
on the basis of the information from the “C” informant); the
analyzer-correlator (able of identifying the interrelation – correlation
between various external situations and the results of actions of the
given system and transferring the knowledge obtained and decisions to the
analyzer-classifier to enter them in the “knowledge base” and the “base of
decisions”). Thus, the system with self-training control block is an object
which can learn to distinguish new external influences and situations in which
such influence may be exerted. For this purpose it has the analyzer-correlator.
In other respects it is similar to the systems with complex control
block. It can respond to specific external influence and external situation and
its reaction would be stipulated by type and number of its SFU. The result of
action of the system is also graduated. The number of gradations is determined
by the number of executive SFU in the system. It also has analyzer-qualifier
with “knowledge base” and “base of decisions” and the analyzer-informant with “database”,
DPC (the “X” informant) and NF (the “Y” informant), which operate the system
through the stimulator (efferent paths). In inorganic/inanimate nature there
are no analogues of systems with self-training control blocks. Biological
analogues of systems with complex control block are all animals with
sufficiently developed nervous system in which it is possible to develop
reflexes to new situations (should not be confused with conditioned reflexes).
The analogue of analyzer-correlator is only the cerebral cortex.
Signaling systems.
The appearance in the control block of the analyzer-correlator enabled the
possibility to enhance its personal experience by self-training and continually
update its “knowledge base” and “base of decisions”. But it cannot transfer its
experience to other systems. Personal experience is limited howsoever an
individual would try to expand it. In any case collective experience is much
broader than that of an individual. In order for one individual to be able to
transfer his/her experience to other individual separate device is needed
enabling “downloading” the information from one “knowledge base” to another.
For example, the antelope knows that the cheetah is very dangerous because it
feeds on antelopes and wishes to transfer this knowledge to its calf. How can
it be done? For example, the antelope can simulate a situation playing a
performance in which all characters are real objects, i.e. it should expose
itself to cheetah so that the calf could see it to gain its own experience by
the example of its mum. The calf will see the situation and new reflex to new
situation will be developed and the calf will be on its guard against the
cheetahs. Of course, it is an absurd way as it does not solve the problem of
survival. Anyway, only one out of the two antelopes
will survive. So, what can be done in principle? How one self-training system can transfer
its individual experience to other self-training system? It is necessary to
simulate a situation by making a show in which all characters are abstract
objects and replace real objects with others, which are conferred conventional
connection/link between them and the real objects (abstracting of objects).
Such abstract objects are prearranged signals. The systems “agree” (stipulate a
condition) that if such-and-such signal occurs, it will speak of something
agreed upon. It is the development of conditioned reflex that represents
replacement of real influence for abstract influence. It is a so-called first
signaling system which is based on conditioned reflexes. The appearance of
cheetah causes producing a panic sound by an antelope. Consequently such sound
is associated with the appearance of cheetah and it becomes an abstract
substitute of cheetah itself, i.e. prearranged signal. Any motional signal may
be an abstract substitute of danger, i.e. raising or dropping of tail, special
jumps, producing special sounds, mimicry, etc. These motional signals affect
the systems in the herd and based on this signal they may know about a danger
nearby. In other words, there was a replacement of real external influence by
some abstract thing associated with this object. Abstracting of real action by
its symbol (vocal, motional, etc) took place. For such abstracting the control
block needs to have an additional device – the analyzer-abstractor which should
contain the “base of abstraction” (“base of prearranged signals”). The “base of
abstraction” contains a set of descriptions of certain signals which are
perceived as conditional situations and correspond to other certain situations.
A prearranged signal is the appearance of some object or movement (situational
signal) which usually does not appear in common routine situation. The
occurrence of prearranged signal does not in itself affect in any way the
achievement of the goals by the systems. For example, raising and fluffing out
a tail does not influence in any way neither food intake, nor running, etc. But
the occurrence of a signal is connected with the occurrence of such situation
which can affect the achievement of goals by the systems. Given the ability to
abstract from concrete situations, then not even seeing a cheetah, but having
seen the lifted tails, may be conducive to guessing that a cheetah is nearby.
Abstracting of real external influence by vocal or motional symbol is performed
by the first signaling system. It supplements the analyzer-correlator and
operates similarly to it, i.e. is self-training. Unlike the “knowledge base”
the “base of abstraction” of a newly born system is empty. It is being filled
out during the system’s lifetime on account of possibility of self-training,
and the newly obtained knowledge is then downloaded in the “knowledge base”.
Sometimes behavior of animals seems to be indicative of their possibility to
transfer the information from one to another even before the occurrence of the
respective situation. For example, some lions go to an ambush, others start
driving the antelopes, so they kind of foresee the situation. But they only
know about ambush possibilities based on their own experience. They do not have
other means of transfer of such information to their younger generation except
for demonstrating this situation to them. A new way for the development of
systems (or rather their control blocks) is being opened at this point, the way
of socialization – associations of animals in groups for the enhancement of
their own experience because prearranged signals are only intended for an
information transfer from one system (subject) to another. There are probably
several levels of such analyzer-abstractor and the degree of abstraction which
may be attained by this or other subject depends on the number of these levels.
One may abstract external influences, external situations, real objects and
even process of self-training proper. But in any case one should be able to
abstract and understand abstract symbols. This is what analyzer-abstractor
does. Abstracting of real external influence, object or situation by means of
situational prearranged signal (a pose, a sound, a movement, some kind of
action) may be performed by the first signaling system. Abstracting of real
external influence, an object or a situation by means of sign /emblematic/
prearranged signal (symbol) can only be performed by second signaling system.
Control block having the second signaling system is an intellectual control block.
Intelligence depends on the presence and the degree of development (number of
levels) of analyzer-abstractor. In animals the second signaling system is very
poorly developed or undeveloped at all. If the horse dashes aside from a whip,
it is not even the first signaling system that works in this case, but rather a
reflex on the new situation which the horse has learnt when it first
encountered a whip. If the horse is coarsely shouted at even without showing a
whip to it, it will draw necessary conclusions. That’s the point at which the
first signaling system takes effect. But if the horse is shown an inscription
which reads that it now will be beaten, the animal will not react to in any way
because it cannot and will never be able to read since it does not have second
signaling system. There are animals which apparently are capable of speaking
and understanding words, written symbols and even making elementary arithmetic
operations. But the second signaling system is very poorly developed in them
and is literally “in embryo” condition. When the trainer demonstrates the dog’s
counting up to five, he bluffs in a way as in fact the dog picks up some
motional signals from him, i.e. the second rather than the first signaling
system takes effect. The second signaling system is developed to the utmost
extent only in human beings. In human beings it is developed to the extent that
it makes it possible to transfer all necessary information on our further
actions to us in the nearest or even quite a distant future only by means of
sign symbols. We can read a book containing just mere squiggles only, however
such a full-blown and colorful pictures are open before us that we forget about
everything on earth. Your dog for sure is surprised that its master looks for
hours at a strange subject (the book) and does not move, run or make any sounds.
And even if you try to explain to it that it is a book the dog will not
understand it anyway, because it has not yet “matured”, it does not have second
signaling system. Thus, the system with self-training control block containing
the first signaling system is an object which can abstract external influences
and situations by means of abstract situational prearranged signal. For this
purpose it has an analyzer-abstractor of the first order. But it can inform of
the presence of such action or situation only at the moment of their
occurrence. It may transfer its experience to other systems only with the help
of the situational prearranged signal which possibilities are limited.
Such block has the “knowledge base” and “base of abstraction” which it accumulates
in its brain within the lifespan. In the communities of systems with first
signaling system accumulation of personal knowledge is possible, whereas
accumulation of social knowledge is impossible because this knowledge is
accumulated only in the control block (cerebrum) which possibilities are
limited. The system which has self-training control block containing the second
signaling system is an object which can abstract external influences and
situations by means of abstract sign /symbolic/ prearranged signal. For this
purpose it has an analyzer-abstractor of Z-order. It can transfer its
experience to other systems by transfer of information to them in the form of
conventional signs. Such blocks accumulate “knowledge base” outside its
cerebrum in the form of script thanks to the developed “base of abstraction”.
It gives an opportunity to absolve from dependence of accumulation of knowledge
on the lifespan of an individual subject. In communities of systems with the
second signaling system accumulation of social knowledge is possible and it
strengthens the accumulation of individual knowledge. In other respects the
control block with signaling systems is similar to the self-training control
block examined above. It can react to definite external influence and learn to
react to new external influence and an external situation, and its reaction is
determined by type and number of its SFU. The result of action of the system is
also graduated. The number of gradations is determined by the number of
executive SFU in the system. It also has the analyzer-correlator, the
analyzer-classifier with “knowledge base” and “base of decisions”, the
analyzer-informant with the “database”, DPC (with the “Х” informant) and NF
(the “Y” informant) which through a stimulator (efferent paths) operate the
system. In an inanimate/inorganic nature there are no analogues of systems with
control block having signaling systems. Biological analogues of systems with
control block containing the first signaling system are all animals with sufficiently
developed nervous system in which conditioned reflexes may be developed. As a
rule such animals do already have social relations (flocks, herds and other
social groups), as signals are transferred from one animal to another.
Biological analogue of systems with control block containing the second
signaling system is only the human being.
Self-organizing
systems. Bogdanov has shown that there exist two modes of
formation of systems. According to the first one the system arises at least
from two objects of any nature by means of the third entity – connections
(synthesis, generation). According to the second one the system is formed at
the expense of disintegration (destruction, retrogression/degeneration) of the
more complex system that previously existed [6]. Hence, the system may be
constructed (arranged) from new elements or restructured (reorganized) at the
expense of inclusion of additional elements in its structure or by exclusion
from its structure of unnecessary elements. Apparently, there is also a third
mode of reorganization of systems – replacement of old or worn out parts for
the new ones (structural regeneration), and the fourth mode – changing of
connections/bonds between internal elements of the system (functional
regeneration). Generation (the first mode of reorganization) is a process of
positive entropy (from simple to complex, complexification of systems). New
system is formed for the account of expanding the structure of its elements.
This process occurs for the account of emergence of additional connections
between the elements and consequently requires energy and inflow of substances
(new elements). The degeneration (the second mode of reorganization) is a
process of negative entropy (from complex to simple, simplification of systems).
New system is formed for the account of reduction of compositional structure of
its elements. This process releases energy and elements from the structure.
Both modes are used for the creation of new systems with the new goals. In the
first case complexification of systems takes place, while in the second one
their simplification or destruction occurs. Structural regeneration (the third
mode of reorganization) is used for the conservation and restoration of the
systems’ structure. It is used in the form of metabolism, but at that, the
system and its goals remain unchanged. Energy and inflow of substances for the
SFU restoration is required for this process. Functional regeneration (the
fourth mode of reorganization) is used for the operation of systems as such.
The principle of the systems’ functioning resembles generation and degeneration
processes. In process of accretion of functions the system includes the next
in turn SFU ostensibly building a new, more powerful system with larger number
of elements (generation). During the reduction of capacity of functions the
system deactivates the next in turn SFU as if it means to build a new system with fewer
number of elements (degeneration). But these are all reversible changes of the
system arising in response to the external influence which are effected for the
account of the change of the condition of its elements and the use of DPC, NF
and effectors. At that, the system’s structure kind of alters depending on its
goal. New active and passive (reserve) SFU appear in it. This process requires
energy and flow of substances for energy recovery, but not necessarily requires
a flow of substances for the restoration of SFU. How does the organization
(structuring) of system occur? Who makes decision on the organization or
reorganization of systems? Who builds control block of the new or reorganized
system? Who gives the command, the task for the system? Why is the NF loop
built for meeting the given specific condition? Before we try to answer these
questions, we will note the following. First, there is a need in the presence
of someone or something “interested” in the new quality of the result of action
who (or which) will determine this condition (set the goal) and construct the
control block. Someone or something “interested” may be the case coupled with natural selection, whereby by way of
extensive arbitrary search corresponding combinations of elements and their
interactions may emerge that are the most sustained/lasting in the given
conditions of environment. Thus, the environment/medium sets condition and the
incident builds the systems under these conditions. At this point we do not
consider the conditions in which generation or degeneration occurs and which
are associated with redundancy or lack of energy (with positive or negative
entropy). We only consider the need and expediency of creation of systems. The
more complicated the system is, the more search options should be available and
the more time it takes (the law of large numbers). We will note, however, that
the goal is set to any systems from the outside, whether it is an incident, a
person, natural selection or something else. But we cannot ignore the
following very interesting consequence. Firstly, the survival rate is the
main and general goal of any living organism. And as far as the goal is set
from the outside, the survival rate is also something set to us from the
outside and is not something that stems from our internal inspirations. In
other words, the aim to survive is our internal incentive, but someone or
something from the outside has once imbedded it in us. And prior to such
imbedding it was not “ours”. Secondly, in order to ensure the possibility of
building systems with any kind of control block, even the elementary one, the
presence of such elements is necessary which quality of results of
actions could in principle provide such a possibility. It follows from the
conservation law and the law of cause-and-effect limitations that nothing
occurs by itself. These elements should have entry points of external influence
(necessarily), command entry points (not necessarily for uncontrollable SFU)
and exit points of the result of action (necessarily). Exits and entries should
have possibility to interact between themselves. This possibility is realized
by means of combination of homo-reactivity and hetero-reactivity of elements.
Physical homo-reactivity is the ability of an element to produce the same kind
of result of action as is the kind of external influence (pressure →
pressure, electricity → electricity, etc.). At the same time,
characteristics of physical parameters do not vary (10g →10g, 5mV →
5mV, etc.). Homo-reactive elements are transmitters of actions. Physical
hetero-reactivity is the ability of an element, in response to external influence
of one physical nature, to yield the result of action of other physical nature
(pressure → electric pulse frequency, electric current → axis shaft
rotation, etc.). Hetero-reactive elements are converters of actions. The
elements with physical hetero-reactivity are, for example, all receptors of
living organism (which transform the signals of measurable parameters into
nerve pulse trains), sensors of measuring devices, levers, shafts, planes, etc.
In other words such elements may be any material things of the world around us
that satisfy hetero-reactivity condition. Chemical reactions also fall under
the subcategory of physical reactions as chemical reactions represent transfer
of electrons from one group of atoms to others. Chemistry is a special section
of physics. Logic hetero-reactivity is the ability of an element, in response
to external influence of one type physical nature, to yield the result of
action of the same physical nature (pressure → pressure, electric
current → electric current, etc.), but with other characteristics (10g →
100g, 5mA → 0.5mA, 1Hz → 10Hz, 5 impulses → 15 impulses,
etc.). Amplifiers, code converters, logic components of electronics are the
examples of elements with logic hetero-reactivity. Neurons do not possess
physical hetero-reactivity as they can perceive only potentials of action and
generate the potentials. But they have logic hetero-reactivity and they can
transform frequency and pulse count. They do not transform a physical parameter
as such, but its characteristics. Any system consists of executive and
operating elements. At the same time any control block of any system itself
consists of some kind of parts (elements), so it also falls under the
definition of systems. In other words, control block and its parts are specific
systems (subsystems) themselves with their goals, and they have their own
executive elements and local control blocks operating these executive elements.
Compulsory condition for part of them is their ability to hetero-reactivity of
one or other sort. The effect of their control action consists only in their
relative positioning. Command is entered into the local control block
(condition of the task, the goal/objective) and the latter continually watches
that the result of action
always satisfies the command. At that, the command can be set from
the outside by other system external in relation to the given one, or the
self-training block may “decide” independently to change the parameters (but
not the goal) set by the command. So, the elements of control may be the same
as the executive elements. The difference is only in relative positioning.
Director of an enterprise is just the same kind of individual as any ordinary
engineer. All elements of the system, both executive and controlling, are
structured according to a certain scheme specific for each concrete case (for
each specific goal), but all of them must have the “exit” point/outlet/, whence
the result of action of the given element is produced, and two “entry points” –
for external influence and for entry of the command. If the exit points of any
elements are connected to the entry points for external influences of other
elements, such elements are executive. In this case executive elements are
converters of one kind of results of action into the other, because the results
of actions of donor systems represent external influence for the recipient
systems (executive elements). They (external influences) ostensibly enter the
system and exit it being already transformed into the form of new results of
action. If exit points of elements are connected to command entry
points of other elements, such elements are controlling and represent a part of control block.
In such cases the result of action of some systems represents the command for the
executive elements, the instruction on how to transform the results of action
of donor systems into the results of action of recipient systems. But
the law of homogeneity of actions and homogeneous interactivity
(homo-reactivity) of the exit-entry connection is invariably observed. If, for
example, the result of action of the donor element is pressure, the entry point
of external influence (for the command) of the recipient element should be able
to react to pressure, or otherwise the interaction between the elements would
be impossible.
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