THE MANAGER AS A TEACHER: SELECTED ASPECTS OF STIMULATION OF SCIENTIFIC THINKING

Principle of independence of the result of action. As it was already repeatedly underlined, the purpose/goal of any system is to get the appropriate/due (target-oriented) result of action arising from the performance of the system. Actually external influence, “having entered” the system, would be transformed to the result of action of the system. That is why systems are actually the converters of external influence into the result of action and of the cause into effect. External influence is in turn the result of action of other system which interacted with the former. Consequently, the result of action, once it has “left” one system and “entered” into another, would now exist independently of the system which produced it. For example, a civil engineering firm had a goal to build a house from certain quantity of building material (external influence). After a number of actions of this firm the house was built (the result of action). The firm could further proceed to the construction of other house, or cease to exist or change the line of business from construction to sewing shop. But the constructed house will already exist independently of the firm which constructed it. The purpose of the automobile engine (the car subsystem) is burning certain quantity of fuel (external influence for the engine) to receive certain quantity of mechanical energy (the result of action of the engine). The purpose of a running gear (other subsystem of the car) is transformation of mechanical energy of the engine (external influence for running gear) into certain number of revolutions of wheels (result of action of running gear). The purpose of wheels is transformation of certain number of revolutions (external influence for wheels) into the kilometers of travel (result of action of wheels). All in all, the result of action of the car will be kilometers of travel which will already exist independently of the car which has driven them through. Photon released from atom which can infinitely roam the space of the Universe throughout many billions years will be the result of action of the exited electron. Result of a slap of an oar by water is the depression/hollow on the water surface which could have also remained there forever if it were not for the fluidity of water and the influence on it of thousand other external influences. However, after thousand influences it will not any more remain in the form of depression/hollow, but in the form of other long chain of results of actions of other systems because nothing disappears in this world, but transforms into other forms. Conservation law is inviolable.

System cycles and transition processes. Systems just like SFU have cycles of their activity as well. Different systems can have different cycles of activity and they depend on the complexity and algorithm of the control block. The simplest cycle of work is characteristic of a system with simple control block. It is formed of the following micro cycles: perception, selection and measurement of external influence by the “X” receptor; selection from “database” of due value of the result of action; transition process (NF multi-micro-cycle);

a) perception and measurement of the result of action by the “Y” receptor - b) comparison of this result with the due value – c) development of the decision and corresponding influence on SFU for the purpose of correction of the result of action – d) influence on SFU, if the result of action is not equal to the appropriate/due one, or transition to the 1st micro cycle if it is equal to the proper one – e) actuation of SFU – f) return to “a)”.

After the onset of external influence the “X” receptor would snap into action (1st micro cycle). Thereafter the value of the result of action which has to correspond to the given external influence (2nd micro cycle) is selected from the “database”. It is then followed by transition process (transition period, 3rd multi-micro-cycle, NF cycle): actuation of the “Y” receptor, comparison of the result of action with the due value selected from the “database”, corrective influence on SFU (the number of actuated SFU mill be the one determined by control block in the micro cycle “c”) and again return to the actuation of the “Y” receptor. It would last in that way until the result of action is equal to the preset one. From this point the purpose/goal is reached and after that the control block comes back to the 1st micro cycle, to the reception of external influence. System performance for the achievement of the result of action would not stop until there new external influence emerges. The aforementioned should be supplemented by a very essential addition. It has already been mentioned when we were examining the SFU performance cycles that after any SFU is actuated it completely spends all its stored energy intended for the performance of action. Therefore, after completion of action SFU is unable of performing any new action until it restores its power capacity, and it takes additional time which can substantially increase the duration of the transition period. That is why a speed of movement (e.g., running) of a sportsman’s body whose system of oxygen delivery to the tissues is large (high speed of energy delivery) would be fast as well. And the speed of movement of a cardiac patient’s body would be slow because the speed of energy delivery is reduced due to the affection of blood circulation system which is a part of the body’s system of power supply. Sick persons spent a long time to restore energy potential of muscular cells because of the delayed ATP production that requires a lot of oxygen. Micro cycles from 1st to 2nd constitute the starting period of control block performance. In case of short-term external influence control block would determine it during the start cycle and pass to the transition period during which it would seek to achieve the actual result of action equal to the proper one. If external influence appears again during the transition period the control block will not react to it because during this moment it would not measure “Х” (refractory phase). Upon termination of the transition period the control block would go back/resort/ to the starting stage, but while it does so (resorts), the achieved due value of the result of action would remain invariable (the steady-state period). If external influence would be long enough and not vary so that after the first achievement of the goal the control block has time to resort to reception “X” again, the steady value of the result of action would be retained as long as the external influence continues. At that, the transition cycle will not start, because the steady-state value of the result of action is equal to the proper/due one. If long external influence continues and changes its amplitude, the onset of new transition cycle may occur. At that, the more the change in the amplitude of external influence, the larger would be the amplitude of oscillation of functions. Therefore, sharp differences of amplitude of external influence are inadmissible, since they cause diverse undesirable effects associated with transition period.

If external influence is equal to zero, all SFU are deactivated, as zero external influence is corresponded by zero activation of SFU. If, after a short while there would be new external influence, the system would repeat all in a former order. Duration of the system performance cycle is also seriously affected by processes of restoration of energy potential of the actuated SFU. Every SFU, when being actuated, would spend definite (quantized) amount of energy, which is either brought in by external influence per se or is being accumulated by some subsystems of power supply of the given system. In any case, energy potential restoration also needs time, but we do not consider these processes as they associated only with the executive elements (SFU), while we only examine the processes occurring in the control blocks of the systems. Thus, the system continually performs in cycles, while accomplishing its micro cycles. In the absence of external influence or if it does not vary, the system would remain at one of its stationary levels and in the same functional condition with the same number of functioning SFU, from zero to all. In such a mode it would not have transition multi-micro-cycle (long-time repeat of the 3rd micro cycle). Every change of level of external influence causes transition processes. Transition of function to a new level would only become possible when the system is ready to do it. Such micro cycles in various systems may differ in details, but all systems without exception have the NF multi-micro-cycle. With all its advantages the NF has a very essential fault, i.e. the presence of transition processes. The intensity of transition process depends on a variety of factors. It can range from minimal to maximal, but transition processes are always present in all systems in a varying degree of intensity. They are unavoidable in essence, since NF actuates as soon as the result of action of the system is produced. It would take some time until affectors of the system feel a mismatch, until the control block makes corresponding decision, until effectors execute this decision, until the NF measures the result of action and corrects the decision and the process is repeated several times until necessary correlation “... external influence → result of action...” is achieved. Therefore, at this time there can be any unexpected nonlinear transition processes breaking normal operating mode of the system. For this reason at the time of the first “actuation” of the system or in case of sharp loading variations it needs quite a long period of setting/adjustment. And even in the steady-state mode due to various casual fluctuations in the environment there can be a minor failure in the NF operation and minor transition processes (“noise” of the result of action of real system). The presence of transition processes imposes certain restrictions on the performance and scope of use of systems. Slow inertial systems are not suitable for fast external influences as the speed of systems’ operation is primarily determined by the speed of NF loop operation. Indeed, the speed of executive element’s operation is the basis of the speed of system operation on the whole, but NF multi-micro-cycle contributes considerably to the extension of the system’s operation cycle. Therefore, when choosing the load on the living organism it is necessary to take into consideration the speed of system operation and to select speed of loading so as to ensure the least intensity of transition processes. The slower the variation of external influence, the shorter is the transition process. Transition period becomes practically unapparent when the variation of external influence is sufficiently slow. Consequently, if external influence varies, the duration of transition period may vary from zero to maximum depending on the speed of such variation and the speed of operation of the system’s elements. Transition period is the process of transition from one level of functional state to another. The “smaller” the steps of transition from one level on another, the less is the amplitude of transition processes. In case of smooth change of loading no transition processes take place. The intensity of transition processes depends on the SFU caliber, force of external influence, duration of SFU charging, sensitivity of receptors, the time of their operation, the NF intensity/profundity and algorithm of the control block operation. But these cycles of systems’ performance and transition processes are present both in atoms and electronic circuitry, planetary systems and all other systems of our World, including human body.

If systems did not have transition processes, transition process period would have been always equal to zero and the systems would have been completely inertia-free. But such systems are non-existent and inertness is inherent in a varying degree in any system. For example, in electronics the presence of transition processes generates additional harmonics of electric current fluctuations in various amplifiers or current generators. Sophisticated circuit solutions are applied to suppress thereof, but they are present in any electronic devices, considerably suppressed though. Time constant of systems with simple control blocks includes time constants of every SFU plus changeable durations of NF transition periods. Therefore, constant of time of such systems is not quite constant since duration of NF transition periods can vary depending on the force of external impact. Transition processes in systems with simple control blocks increase the inertness of such systems. Inertness of systems leads to various phase disturbances of synchronization and balance of interaction between systems. There are numerous ways to deal with transition processes. External impacts may be filtered in such a way that to prevent from sharp shock impacts (filtration, a principle of graduality of loading). Knowing the character of external impacts/influences in advance and foreseeing thereof which requires seeing them first (and it can only be done, at the minimum, by complex control blocks) would enable designing of such an appropriate algorithm of control block operation which would ensure finding correct decision by the 3rd micro cycle (prediction based control/management). However, it is only feasible for intellectual control blocks. Apparently it’s impossible for us to completely get rid of the systems’ inertness so far. Therefore, if the external impact/influence does not vary and the transition processes are practically equal to zero the system would operate cyclically and accurately on one of its stationary levels, or smoothly shift from one stationary level to another if external influence varies, but does it quite slowly. If transition processes become notable, the system operation cycles become unequal due to the emergence of transition multi-micro-cycles, i.e. period of transition processes. At that, nonlinear effects reduce the system’s overall performance. In our everyday life we often face transition processes when, being absolutely unprepared, we leave a warm room and get into the cold air outside and catch cold. In the warm room all systems of our organism were in a certain balance of interactions and everything was all right. But here we got into the cold air outside and all systems should immediately re-arrange on a new balance. If they have no time to do it and highly intensive transition processes emerge that cause unexpected fluctuations of results of actions of body systems, imbalance of interactions of systems occurs which is called “cold” (we hereby do not specify the particulars associated with the change of condition of the immune system). After a while the imbalance would disappear and the cold would be over as well. If we make ourselves fit, we can train our “control blocks” to foresee sharp strikes of external impacts to reduce transition processes; we then will be able even to bathe in an ice hole. Transition processes of special importance for us are those arising from sharp change of situation around us. Stress-syndrome is directly associated with this phenomenon. The sharper the change of the situation around us, the more it gets threatening (external influence is stronger), the sharper transition processes are, right up to paradoxical reactions of a type of stupor. At that, the imbalance of performance of various sites of nervous system (control blocks) arises, which leads to imbalance of various systems of organism and the onset of various pathological reactions and processes of a type of vegetative neurosis and depressions, ischaemia up to infarction and ulcers, starting from mouth cavity (aphtae) to large intestine ulcers (ulcerative colitis, gastric and duodenum ulcers, etc.), arterial hypertension, etc.

Cyclic recurrence is a property of systems not of a living organism only. Any system operates in cycles. If external influence is retained at a stable level, the system would operate based on this minimal steady-state cycle. But external influence may change cyclically as well, for example, from a sleep to sleep, from dinner to dinner, etc. These are in fact secondary, tertiary, etc., cycles. Provided constructing the graphs of functions of a system, we get wavy curves characterizing recurrence. Examples include pneumotachogram, electrocardiogram curves, curves of variability of gastric juice acidity, sphygmogram curves, curves of electric activity of neurons, periodicity of the EEG alpha rhythm, etc. Sea waves, changes of seasons, movements of planets, movements of trains, etc., - these are all the examples of cyclic recurrence of various systems. The forms of cyclic recurrence curves may be of all sorts. The electrocardiogram curve differs from the arterial pressure curve, and the arterial pressure curve differs from the pressure curve in the aortic ventricle. Variety of cyclic recurrence curves is infinite. Two key parameters characterize recurrence: the period (or its reciprocal variable - frequency) and nonuniformity of the period, which concept includes the notion of frequency harmonics. Nonuniformity of the cycle period should not be resident in SFU (the elementary system) as its performance cycles are always identical. However, the systems have transition periods which may have various cycle periods. Besides, various systems have their own cyclic periods and in process of interaction of systems interference (overlap) of periods may occur. Therefore, additional shifting of own systems’ periods takes place and   harmonics of cycles emerge. The number of such wave overlaps can be arbitrary large. That is why in reality we observe a very wide variety of curves: regular sinusoids, irregular curves, etc. However, any curves can be disintegrated into constituent waves thereof, i.e. disintegration of interference into its components using special analytical methods, e.g. Fourier transformations. Resulting may be a spectrum of simpler waves of a sinusoid type. The more detailed (and more labour-consuming, though) the analysis, the nearer is the form of each component to a sinusoid and the larger is the number of sinusoidal waves with different periods.

The period of system cycle is a very important parameter for understanding the processes occurring in any system, including in living organisms. Its duration depends on time constant of the system’s reaction to external impact/influence. Once the system starts recurrent performance cycle, it would not stop until it has not finished it. One may try to affect the system when it has not yet finished the cycle of actions, but the system’s reaction to such interference would be inadequate. The speed of the system’s functions progression depends completely on the duration of the system performance cycle. The longer the cycle period, the slower the system would transit from one level to another. The concepts of absolute and relative adiaphoria are directly associated with the concept of period and phase of system cycle. If, for example, the myocardium has not finished its “systole-diastole” cycle, extraordinary (pre-term) impulse of rhythm pacemaker or extrasystolic impulse cannot force the ventricle to produce adequate stroke release/discharge. The value of stroke discharge may vary from zero to maximum possible, depending on at which phase of adiphoria period extrasystolic impulse occurs. If the actuating pulse falls on the 2nd and 3rd micro cycles, the myocardium would not react to them at all (absolute adiphoria), since information from the “X” receptor is not measured at the right time. Myocardium, following the contraction, would need, as any other cell would do following its excitation, some time to restore its energy potential (ATP accumulation) and ensure setting of all SFU in “startup” condition. If extraordinary impulse emerges at this time, the system’s response might be dependent on the amount of ATP already accumulated or the degree in which actomyosin fibers of myocardium sarcomeres diverged/separated in order to join in the function again (relative adiphoria). Excitability of an unexcited cell is the highest. At the moment of its excitation excitability sharply falls to zero (all SFU in operation, 2nd micro cycle) – absolute adiphoria. Thereafter, if there is no subsequent excitation, the system would gradually restore its excitability, while passing through the phases of relative adiphoria up to initial or even higher level (super-excitability, which is not examined in this work) and then again to initial level. Therefore, pulse irregularity may be observed in patients with impaired cardial function, when sphygmic beats are force-wise uneven. Extreme manifestation of such irregularity is the so-called “Jackson’s symptom” /pulse deficiency/, i.e. cardiac electric activity is shown on the electrocardiogram, but there is no its mechanical (haemodynamic) analogue on the sphygmogram and sphygmic beats are not felt when palpating the pulse. The main conclusions from all the above are as follows: any systems operate in cycles passing through micro cycles; any system goes through transition process; cycle period may differ in various systems depending on  time constant of the system’s reaction to the external impact/influence (in living systems – on the speed of biochemical reactions and the speed of command/actuating  signals); irregularity of the system’s cycle period depends on the presence of transition processes, consequently, to a certain degree on the force of external exposure/influence; irregularity of the system cycle period depends on overlapping of cycle periods of interacting systems; upon termination of cycle of actions after single influence the system reverts to the original state, in which it was prior to the beginning of external influence (one single result of action with one single external influence). The latter does not apply to the so-called generating systems. It is associated with the fact that after the result of action has been achieved by the system, it becomes independent of the system which produced it and may become external influence in respect to it. If it is conducted to the external influence entry point of the same system, the latter would again get excited and again produce new result of action (positive feedback, PF). This is how all generators work. Thus, if the first external influence affects the system or external influence is ever changing, the number of functioning SFU systems varies. If no external influence is exerted on the system or is being exerted but is invariable, the number of functioning system SFU would not vary. Based on the above we can draw the definitions of stationary conditions and dynamism of process.

Страницы: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12