THE MANAGER AS A TEACHER: SELECTED ASPECTS OF STIMULATION OF SCIENTIFIC THINKING
Quantity of the
result of action. To achieve the preset goal the designation of the quality of
the result of action only is not sufficient. The goal sets not only “what
action the object should deliver” (quality of the result of action), but also
“how much of this action” the given object should deliver (quantity of the
result of action). And the system should seek to perform exactly as much of
specific action as it is necessary, neither more nor less than that. The
quality of action is determined by SFU type. The quantity is determined by
the quantity of SFU. There are three quantitative characteristics of the result
of action: maximum, minimum and optimum quantity of action. In the real world
gradation of the results of action is required from the real systems.
Therefore, the system performance should deliver neither maximum nor minimum,
but optimum result. Optimum means performance based on the principle “it is
necessary and sufficient”. It is necessary that the result of action should be
such-and-such, but not another in terms of quality and adequate in terms of
quantity, neither more nor less. Hence, the SFU cannot be the full-fledged
systems. The systems are needed in which controllable/adjustable grading of the
result of action would be possible. For example, it is required that the
pressure of 100 mm Hg is maintained in the tissue capillaries. This phrase
encompasses presetting of everything what is included in the concept “necessary
and sufficient” at once. It is necessary... pressure, and it is enough... 10 mm
Hg. It is possible to collate the SFU providing pressure, but not of 10 mm Hg,
but, for instance, 100 mm Hg. It is too much. It is probably possible to
collate the SFU which can provide pressure of 10 mm Hg and at the moment it
might be sufficient. But if the situation has suddenly changed and the
requirement is now 100 mm Hg rather than 10 mm Hg, what should be done then?
Should one run about and search for SFU which may provide the 100 mm Hg? And
what if it’s impossible to make such system which would be able to provide any
pressure in a range, for example, from 0 to 100 mm Hg, depending on a
situation? In order to provide the quantity of the result of action which is
necessary at the moment, the grading of the results of action of systems is
required. It could have been achieved by building the systems from a set of
homotypic SFU of a type of composite SFU flow diagram. It has what is needed
for the graduation of the result of action as it contains numerous SFU. If it
could be possible to do it so that it enables actuating from one to all of SFU,
depending on the need, the result of action would have as much gradation as
many SFU is present in the system. The higher the required degree of accuracy,
the more of minor gradations of the result of action should be available.
Therefore, instead of one SFU with its extremely large scale result of action
it is necessary to use such amount of SFU with minor result of action which sum
is equal to the required maximum, while the accuracy of implementation of the
goal is equal to the result of action of one SFU. However, composite SFU has no
possibility to control the result of action as it has no the unit able of doing
it. To deliver the result of action precisely equal to the preset one, it (the
result of action) needs to be continually measured and measuring data compared
with the task (with command, with “database”). The “database” is a list of
those due values of result of action which the system should deliver depending
on the magnitude of external influence and algorithm of the control block
operation. The goal of the system is that each value of the measured external
influence should be corresponded by strictly determined value of the result of action (due
value). To this effect it is necessary “to see” (to measure) the result of
action of the system to compare it to the appropriate/due result. And for this
purpose the control block should have a “Y” receptor which can measure the
result of action and there should be a communication/transmission link
(reciprocal paths) through which the information from a “Y” receptor would pass
to the analyzer-informant, where the result of this measurement should be
compared with what should be/occur (with “database”). The control block of the
system should compare external influence with the due value, whereas the due
value should be compared with own result of action to see its conformity or
discrepancy with the due value. Composite SFU still can compare external influence
with eigen result of action, because it has DPC, whereas it can not any longer
compare due value with the result of eigen action just because it does not have
anything able of doing it (there are no appropriate elements).
Simple control
block (negative feedback - NF). In order for the control block of the system to
“see” (to feel and measure) the result of action of the system, it should have
a corresponding “Y” receptor at the outlet/exit point/ of system and the
communication link between it and a “Y” receptor (reciprocal path). The logic
of operation of such control consists in that if the scale of the result of
action is lager than that of the preset result it is necessary to reduce it,
having activated smaller number of SFU, and if it is small-scale it is
necessary to increase it by actuating larger number of SFU. For this reason
such link is called negative. And as the information moves back from the outlet
of system towards its beginning, it is called feedback/back action. As a result the
negative feedback (NF) occurs. A “Y” receptor and reciprocate path comprise NF
and together with the analyzer-informant and efferent cannels (stimulator) form
a NF loop. Depending on the need and based on the NF information the control
block would engage or disengage the functions of controllable SFU as
necessary. The difference of this system from the composite SFU lies only in
the presence of a “Y” receptor which measures the result of action and
reciprocal paths through which the information is transferred from this
receptor to the analyzer. The number of active SFU is determined by NF. The NF
is realized by means of NF loop which includes the “Y” receptor, reciprocal
path, through which information from “Y” receptor is transferred to the
analyzer-informant, analyzer proper and efferent channels through which the
control block decisions are transferred to the effectors (controllable SFU).
Thus, the system, unlike SFU, contains both DPC and NF. Direct positive
(controllable) communication activates the system, while negative feedback
determines the number of activated SFU. For example, if larger number of alveolar
capillaries in lungs will be opened compared to the number of the alveoli with
appropriate gas composition, arterialization of venous blood will be incomplete,
and there will be a need to close a part of alveolar capillaries which “wash”
by bloodstream the alveoli with gas composition not suitable for gas exchange.
If the number of such opened capillaries will be smaller, overloading of
pulmonary blood circulation would occur and the pressure in pulmonary artery
will increase and there will be a need to open part of alveolar capillaries. In
any case the informant of pulmonary blood circulation would snap into action
and the control block would decide what part of capillaries needs to be opened
or closed. Hence, the diffusion part of vascular channel of pulmonary
bloodstream is the system containing simple control block. The goal of
the system is that the result of action of “Y” should be equal to the command
“M” (Y=M). Actions of system aimed at the achievement of goal are implemented
by executive elements. Control block would watch the accuracy of implementation
of actions. The control block containing DPC and NF loop is simple. The
algorithm of simple control blocks operation is not complex. The NF loop would
trace continually the result of performance of executive elements (SFU). If the
result of action turns out to be of a larger scale than the preset result, it
needs to be reduced, and if the result is of a smaller scale than the preset
one it needs to be increased. Control parameters (the “database”) are set
through the command; for example, what should be the correlation between
external influence and the result of action, or what level of the result of
action will need to be retained, etc. At that, the maximum accuracy would be
the result of action of one SFU (quantum of action). Systems with NF, as well as
composite SFU, also contain two types of objects: executive elements (SFU) (effectors
which carry out specific actions for the achievement of the preset overall goal of the system)
and the control block (DPC and NF loop). But besides the “Õ” informant, control
block of the system also contains the “Y” informant (NF). Therefore, it has
information both on the external influence and the result of action. Some
complexification of the control block brings about a very essential result. The
reason for such a complexification is the need to achieve optimally accurate
implementation of the goal of the system. The NF ensures the possibility of
regulation of quantity of the result of action, i.e. the system with NF may
perform any required action in an optimal way, from minimum to maximum,
accurate to one quantum of action. Generally speaking, any real system at that
has the third type of objects: service elements, i.e. substructure elements
without which executive elements cannot operate. For example, the aircraft has
wings to fly, but it also has wheels to take off and land. The haemoglobin
molecule contains haem which contains 4 SFU (ligands) and globin, the protein
which does not participate directly in transportation of oxygen but without
which haem cannot work. We have slightly touched upon the issue of existence of
the third type of objects (service elements) for one purpose only to know that
they are always present in any system, but we will not go into detail of their
function. We will only note that they represent the same ordinary systems aimed
at serving other systems. Systems with NF can solve most of the tasks in a far
better manner than simple or composite SFU. The presence of NF almost does not
complexicate the system. We have seen that even simple SFU is a very complex
formation including a set of components. Composite SFU is as many times more complex
compared to simple SFU as is the number almost equal to that of simple
SFU. The system with NF is only supplemented by one receptor and the
communication link between receptor and analyzer (reciprocal path). But the
effect of such change in the structure of control block is very large-scale and
only depends on the algorithm of the control block operation. Any SFU (simple
and composite) can implement only minimum or maximum action. Systems with NF
can surely deliver the optimal result of action, from minimum to maximum; they
are accurate and stable. Their accuracy depends only on the value of quantum of
action of separate SFU and the NF profundity/intensity/ (see below). Stability
is stipulated by that the system always “sees” the result of action and can
compare it with the appropriate/due one and correct it if divergence occurs. In
real systems the causes for the divergence are always present, since they exist
in the real world where there always exists perturbation action/disturbing
influences. Hence, one can see that it is NF that turns SFU into real
systems. How does the control block manage the system? What parameters are
characteristic of it? Any control block is characterized by three DPC
parameters and the same number of NF loop parameters. For DPC it is a minimal
level of controllable input stimulus (threshold of sensitivity); maximal level of controllable
input stimulus (range of input stimulus sensitivity); time of engagement of
control (decision-making
time). For NF loop it is minimal level of controllable result of
action (threshold of sensitivity of NF loop – NF profundity/intensity); maximal
level of controllable result of action (range of sensitivity of the result of
action); time of engagement of control (decision-making time). Minimal level
of controllable input signal for DPC is the sensitivity threshold of signal of
the “Õ” receptor wherefrom the analyzer-informant recognizes that the external
influence has already begun. For example, if ðÎ2 has reached 60 mm Hg the sphincter should be opened (1 SFU is
actuated), if the ðÎ2 value is smaller,
then it is closed. Any values of ðÎ2 smaller than 60 mm Hg would not lead to the opening of sphincter,
because these are sub-threshold values. Consequently, 60 mm Hg is the
operational threshold of sphincter. Maximum level of controllable entrance
signal (range) for DPC is the level of signal about external influence at which
all SFU are actuated. The system cannot react to the further increase in the
input signal by the extension of its function, as it does not have any more of
SFU reserves. For example, if ðÎ2 has reached 100 mm Hg all sphincters should be opened (all SFU
are activated). Any values of ðÎ2 larger than 100 mm Hg will not lead to the opening of additional
sphincters, because all of them are already opened, i.e. the values of 60-100
mm Hg are the range of activation of the system of sphincters. Time of
DPC activation is a time interval between the onset of external influence and
the beginning of the system’s operation. The system would never respond
immediately after the onset of external influence. Receptors need to feel a
signal, the analyzer-informant needs to make the decision, the effectors
transfer the guiding impact to the command entry points of the executive
elements - all this takes time. The minimal level of the controllable exit
signal for NF is a threshold of sensitivity of a signal of the “Y” receptor,
wherefrom the analyzer-informant recognizes whether there is a discrepancy
between the result of action of the system and its due value. The discrepancy
should be equal to or more than the quantum of action of single SFU. For
example, if one sphincter is to be opened and the bloodstream should be minimal
(one quantum of action), whereas two sphincters are actually opened and the bloodstream
is twice as intensive (two quanta of action), the “Y” receptor should feel an
extra quantum. If it is able of doing so, its sensitivity is equal to one
quantum. Sensitivity is defined by the NF profundity/intensity. The NF
profundity/intensity is a number of quanta of action of the single SFU system
which sum is identified as the discrepancy between the actual and
appropriate/proper action. The NF profundity/intensity is preset by the command. The
highest possible NF profundity/intensity is the sensitivity of discrepancy in
one quantum of action of single SFU. The less the NF profundity/intensity, the
less is sensitivity, the more it is “rough”. In other words, the less the NF profundity/intensity,
the larger value of the discrepancy between the result of action and the proper
result is interpreted as discrepancy. For example, even two (three, ten, etc.)
quanta of action of two (three, ten, etc.) SFU is interpreted as discrepancy.
Minimal NF profundity/intensity is its absence. In this case any discrepancy of
the result of action with the proper one is not interpreted by the control
block as discrepancy. The result of action would be maximal and the system with
simple control block with zero NF profundity/intensity would turn into
composite SFU with DPC (with simplest/elementary control block). For example,
the system of the Big Circle of Blood circulation for microcirculation
in fabric capillaries should hold average pressure of 100 mm Hg accurate to 1
mm Hg. At the same time, average arterial pressure can fluctuate from 80 to 200
mm Hg. The value “100 mm Hg” determines the level of controllable result of
action. The value “from 80 to 200 mm Hg” is the range of controllable external
(entry) influence. The value of “1 mm Hg” is determined by NF
profundity/intensity. Smaller NF profundity/intensity would control the
parameter with smaller degree of accuracy, for example, to within 10 mm Hg
(more roughly) or 50 mm Hg (even more roughly), while the higher NF
profundity/intensity would do it with higher degree of accuracy, for example to
within 0.1 mm Hg (finer). Maximal NF sensitivity is limited to the value of
quantum of action of SFU which are part of the system, and the NF profundity/intensity.
But in any case, if discrepancy between the level of the controllable and
preset parameters occurs to the extent higher than the value of the preset
accuracy, the NF loop should “feel” this divergence and “force” executive
elements to perform so that to eliminate the discrepancy of the goal and the
result of action. Maximal level of controllable outlet/exit signal (range) for
NF is the level of signal about the result of action of the system at which all
SFU are actuated. The system cannot react to the further increase in entry
signal by increase in its function any more, because it has no more of SFU
reserves. The time of actuating of NF control is the time interval between the
onset of discrepancy of signal about the result of action with the preset
result and the beginning of the system’s operation. All these parameters can be
“built in” DPC and NF loops or set primordially (the command is entered at their
“birth” and they do not further vary any more), or can be entered through the
command later, and these parameters can be changed by means of input of a
new command from the outside. For this purpose there should be a channel of
input of the command. Simple control block in itself cannot change any of these
parameters. Absolutely all systems have control block, but it cannot be always
found explicitly. In the aircraft or a spaceship this block is presented by the
on-board computer, a box with electronics. In human beings and animals such
block is the brain, or at least nervous system. But where is the control block
located in a plant or bacterium? Where is the control block located in atom or
molecule, or, for example, the control block in a nail? The easier the system, the more
difficult it is for us to single out forms of control block habitual for us.
However, it is present in any systems. Executive elements are responsible for
the quality of result of action, while the control block – for its quantity.
The control block can be, for example, intra- or internuclear and
intermolecular connections/bonds. For example, in atom the SFU functions are
performed by electrons, protons and neutrons, and those of control block by
intra-nuclear forces or, in other words, interactions. The intra-atomic
command, for example, is the condition that there can be no more than 2
electrons at the first electronic level, 8 electrons at the second level, etc.,
(periodic law determined by Pauli principle), this level being rigidly
designated by quantum numbers. If the electron has somewise received additional
energy and has risen above its level it cannot retain it for a long time and
will go back, thereby releasing surplus of energy in the form of a photon. At
that, not just any energy can lift the electron onto the other level, but only
and only specific one (the corresponding quantum of energy). It also rises not
just onto any level, but only onto the strictly preset one. If the energy of
the external influence is less than the corresponding quantum, the electron
level stabilization system would keep it in a former orbit (in a former
condition) until the energy of external influence exceeded the corresponding
level. If the energy of external influence is being continually accrued in a
ramp-up mode, the electron would rise from one level to other not in a linear
mode but by leaps (which are strictly defined by quantum laws) into higher
orbits as soon as the energy of influence exceeds certain threshold levels. The
number of levels of an electron’s orbit in atom is probably very large and
equal to the number of spectral lines of corresponding atom, but each level is
strictly fixed and determined by quantum laws. Hence, some kind of mechanism
(system of stabilization of quantum levels) strictly watches the performance of
these laws, and this mechanism should have its own SFU and control blocks. The
number of levels of the electron’s orbit is possibly determined by the number
of intranuclear SFU (protons and neutrons or other elementary particles), which
result of action is the positioning of electron in an electronic orbit. For
example, in a nail system the command would be its form and geometrical values. This
command is entered into the control block one-time at the moment of nail
manufacture when its values (at the moment of its “birth”) are measured and is
not entered later any more. But when the command is already entered the system
should execute this command, i.e. in this case the nail should keep its form and values
even if it is being hammered. In any control block type the command should be entered into at some point
of time in one way or another. We cannot make just a nail “in general”,
but only the one with concrete form and preset values. Therefore, at the moment
of its manufacture (i.e. one-time) we give it the “task” to be of
such-and-such form and values. The command can vary if there is a channel of
input of the command. For example, when turning on the air conditioner we can
“give it a task” to hold air temperature at 20°Ñ and thereafter change the
command for 25°Ñ. The nail does not have a channel of input of the order, while
the air conditioner does. Consequently, the system with simple control block is
the object which can react to certain external influence, and the result of its action is
graduated and stable. The number of gradation is determined by the number SFU
in the system and the accuracy is determined by quantum of action (the size,
result) of single SFU and NF profundity/intensity. The result of action is
accurate because the control block supervises it by means of NF. Type of
control is based on mismatch/error plus error-rate control/. Control would only
start after the occurrence of external influence or delivery of the result of
action. Stability of the result of action is determined by NF
profundity/intensity. System reaction is conditioned by type and number of its
SFU. Simple control block has three channels of control: one external (command)
and two internal (DPC and NF). It reacts to external influence through DPC (the
“Õ” informant) and to its own result of action of the system (the “Y” informant)
through NF, whereas it controls executive elements of the system through
efferent channels. Analogues of systems with simple control block are all
objects of inanimate/inorganic world: gas clouds, crystals, various solid
bodies, planets, planetary and stellar systems, etc. Biological analogues of
systems with simple control block are protophytes and metaphytes, bacteria and
all vegetative/autonomic systems of an organism, including, for example,
external gas exchange system, blood circulation system, external gaseous
metabolism system, digestion or immune systems. Even single-celled animal
organisms of amoebas and infusorian type, inferior animal classes (jellyfish
etc.) are the systems with complex control blocks/units (see below). All
vegetative and many motor reflexes of higher animals which actuate at all
levels starting from intramural nerve ganglia through hypothalamus are
structured as simple control blocks. If they are affected by guiding influence
of cerebral cortex, higher type (complex) reflexes come into service (see
below). Analogues of the “Õ” informant receptors are all sensitive receptors
(haemo-, baro-, thermo- and other receptors located in various bodies, except
visual, acoustical and olfactory receptors which are part of the “C” informant,
see below). Analogues of the “Y” informant receptors are all proprio-sensitive
receptors which can also be haemo-, baro-, thermo- and other receptors located
in different organs. Analogues of the control block stimulators are all motor
and effector nerves stimulating cross-striped, unstriated muscular systems and
secretory cells, as well as hormones, prostaglandins and other metabolites
having any effect on the functions of any systems of organism. Analogues of the
analyzer-informant in the mineral and vegetative media are only
connections/bonds between the elements of a type of direct connection of “X”
and “Y” informants with effectors (axon reflexes). In vegetative systems of animals
connections are also of a type of direct connection of “X” and “Y” informants
with effectors (humoral and metabolic regulation), as well as axon reflex
(controls only nervules without involvement of nerve cell itself) and
unconditioned reflexes (at the level of intra-organ intramural and other
neuronic formations right up to hypothalamus). Thus, using DPC and NF and
regulating the performance of its SFU the system produces the results of action
qualitatively and quantitatively meeting the preset goal.