The manager as a teacher: selected aspects of stimulation of scientsfsc thinking
The principle of goal-setting. A
car is intended for transportation, a calculator – for calculations, a
lantern – for illumination, etc. But the goal of transportation is needed not for
the car but for someone or something external with respect to it. The car only
needs its ability to implement the function in order to achieve this goal. The goal
is to meet the need of something external in something, and this system only implements
the goal while serving this external “something”. Hence, the goal for a system
is set from the outside, and the only thing required from the system is the ability
to implement this goal. This external “something” is another system or systems,
because the World is tamped only with systems. Goal-setting always excludes independent
choice of the goal by the system. The goal can be set to the system as the
order/command and directive. There is a difference between these concepts. The
order/command is a rigid instruction, it requires execution of just “IT” with
the preset accuracy and only “IN THAT MANNER” and not in
any other way, i.e. the system is not given the “right” to choose actions for
the achievement of the goal and all its actions are strictly defined. Directive
is a milder concept, whereby the “IT” is set only the given or approximate
accuracy, but the right to choose actions is given to the system itself. Directive
can be set only to systems with well developed management unit/control block which
can make choice of necessary actions by itself. None of the
systems does possess free will and can set the goal before itself;
it comes to it from the outside. But are there any systems which are
self-sufficient and set the goals before themselves? For example, we, the people,
are sort of able of setting goals before ourselves and carry them out. Well
then, are we the example of independent systems? But it is
not as simple as it may seem. There is a dualism (dual nature) of one and the same
concept of goal: the goal as the task for some system and the goal as an aspiration
(desire) of this system to execute the goal set before
it: the Goal is a task representing the need of external operating system
(super system) to achieve certain predetermined result; the Goal is an
aspiration (desire) to achieve certain result of performance of the given
system always equal to the preset result (preset by order or directive).
The fundamental point is that one super system cannot set the goal before the
system (subsystem) of other super system. It can set the goal only before this super
system which becomes a subsystem in respect of the latter. We can set the goal
before ourselves, but we always set the goal only when we are missing/lacking
something, when we suffer. Suffering is an unachieved desire. Any physiological
(hunger, thirst), aesthetic and other unachieved desires makes us suffer and
suffering forces us to aspire to act until desires are satisfied. The depth of
suffering is always equal to the intensity of desire. We want to eat and we
suffer from hunger until we satisfy this desire. As soon as we take some food,
the suffering ceases immediately. At that, the new desire arises according to
“Maslow pyramid”. Desire is our goal-aspiration. When we realize our wish we
achieve the objective/goal. If we achieve the objective we cease to act,
because the goal is achieved and the wish disappears. If we have everything we
can only think of, we will not set any goals before ourselves, because there is
nothing to wish, since we have everything. Therefore, even a human being with
all its complexity and developmental evolution cannot be absolutely independent
of other systems (of external environment). Our goals-tasks are always set
before us by the external environment and it incites our desire (goal-aspiration)
which is dictated by shortage of something. We are free to choose our actions to
achieve the goal, but it is at this point where we are limited by our
possibilities. We do not set the goal-task, we set the goals-aspirations.
Then if it is not us, can there be other systems which can set goals before
themselves regardless of whatsoever? Perhaps, starting from any certain level
of complication the systems can do it themselves? Such
examples are unknown to us. For any however large and difficult system there might
be another, even higher system found which will dictate the
former its goals and conditions. Nature is integrated and almost put in (good)
order. It is “almost” put in order, because at the level of quantum
phenomena there is probably some uncertainty and unpredictability, i.e. unconformity
of the phenomena to our knowledge of physical laws (for example, tunnel
effects). It is this unpredictability which is the cause of contingencies and
unpredictability. Contingency /stochasticity and purposefulness are mutually
exclusive.
Principle of performance of
action. Any system is intended for any well defined and concrete goal specific for
it, and for this purpose it performs only specific (target-oriented) actions.
Hence, the goal of a system is the aspiration to perform certain purposeful
actions for the achievement of target-oriented (appropriate)
result of action. The plane is designed for air transportation, but cannot
float; for this purpose there is an amphibian aircraft. The result of aircraft
performance is moving by air. This result of action is expectable and predictable.
The constancy and predictability of functional performance is a distinctive
feature of any systems – living, natural, social, financial, technical, etc.
Consequently, in order to achieve the goal any object
of our World should function, make any purposeful actions,
operations (in this case the purposeful, deliberate inaction is in some sense an
action, too). Action is manifestation of some energy, activity, as well as
force itself, the functioning of something; condition, process
arising in response to some influence, stimulant/irritant, impression (for
example, reaction in psychology, chemical reactions, nuclear reactions). The
object’s action is followed by the result of action (not always expected, but
always logical and conditioned). The purpose of any system is the aspiration to
yield appropriate (targeted) result of action. At that, the given object is the
donor of the result of action. The result of action of donor system can be
directed towards any other system which in this case will be the recipient
(target) for the result of action. In this case the result of action of the donor
system becomes the external influence for the recipient system. Interaction
between the systems is carried out only through the results of action. In that
way the chain of actions is built as follows: ... → (external influence) →
result of action (external influence) →...
The system produces single result of action for single external influence. No
object operates in itself. It cannot decide on its own “Here now I will start
to operate” because it has no freedom of will and it cannot set the goal before
itself and produce the result of action on its own. It can only react (act) in response
to certain external influence. Any actions of any objects are always their
reaction to something. Any influence causes response/reaction. Lack of
influence causes no reaction. Reaction can sometimes be delayed, therefore it may
seem causeless. But if one digs and delves, it is always possible to find the cause,
i.e. external influence. Cognition of the world only falls to our lot through the
reactions of its elements. Reaction (from Latin “re” – return and
“actio” - action) is an action, condition, process arising in response to some
influence, irritant/stimulant, impression (for example, reaction in psychology,
chemical reactions, nuclear reactions). Consequently, the system’s action in response
to the external influence is the reaction of the system. When the system has
worked (responded) and the required result of action has been received, it
means that it has already achieved (“quenched”) the goal
and after that it has no any more goal to aspire to. Reaction is always
secondary and occurs only and only following the external influence exerted upon
the element. Reaction can sometimes occur after a long time following the
external influence if, for example, the given element has been specially “programmed”
for the delay. But it will surely occur, provided that the force of the external
influence exceeds the threshold of the element’s sensitivity to the external
influence and that the element is capable to respond to the given influence in
general. If the element is able of reacting to pressure
above 1 atmosphere it will necessarily react if the pressure is in excess of 1
atmosphere. If the pressure is less than 1 atmosphere it will not react to the
lower pressure. If it is influenced by temperature, humidity or electric
induction, it will also not react, howsoever we try to “persuade” it, as it is only
capable to react to pressure higher than 1 atmosphere. In no pressure case (no
pressure above 1 atmosphere), it will never react. Since
the result of the system’s performance appears only following some external
influence, it is always secondary, because the external influence is primary.
External influence is the cause and the result of action is a consequence
(function). It is obvious that donor systems can produce one or several results
of action, while the recipient systems may only react to one or several external
influences. But donor elements can interact with the recipient systems only in
case of qualitatively homogeneous actions. If the recipient systems can react
only to pressure, then the systems able of interacting with them may be those
which result of action is pressure, but not temperature, electric current or
something else. Interaction between donor systems and recipient systems is only
possible in case of qualitative uniformity (homoreactivity, the principle of
homogeneous interactivity). We can listen to the performance of the musician on
a stage first of all because we have ears. The earthworm is not able to
understand our delight from the performance of the musician at least for the
reason that it has no ears, it cannot perceive a sound and it has no idea about
a sound even if (hypothetically) it could have an intelligence equal to ours.
The result of action of the recipient element can be both homogeneous (homoreactive)
and non-homogeneous, unequal in terms of quality of action (heteroreactive) of
external influence in respect of it. For example, the element reacts to
pressure, and its result of action can be either pressure or temperature, or
frequency, or a stream/flow of something, or the number of inhabitants of the
forest (apartment, city, country) etc. Hence, the reaction of an element to the
external influence can be both homoreactive and heteroreactive. In the first
case the elements are the action transmitters, in the second case they are converters
of quality of action. If the result of the system’s actions completely corresponds
to the implementation of goal, it speaks of the sufficiency of this system (the
given group of interacting elements) for the given purpose. If not, the given
group of elements mismatches the given goal/purpose and/or is insufficient, or
is not the proper system for the achievement of a degree of quality and
quantity of the preset goal. Therefore, any existing object can be characterized
by answering the basic question: “What can the given object do?” This question
characterizes the concept of the “result of action of an object” which in turn
consists of two subquestions: What action can be done by given object? (the quality
of result of action); How much of such action can be done by the given object?
(the quantity of result of action). These two subquestions characterize the
aspiration of a system to implement the goal. And the goal-setting may be
characterized by answering another question: “What should the given object do?”
which also consists of two subquestions: what action should the given object do?
(the quality of the result of action); how much of such action should the given
object do? (the quantity of the result of action). These last two subquestions are
the ones that determine the goal as a task (the order/command,
the instruction) for the given object or group of objects, and the system is being
sought or built to achieve this goal. The closer the correspondence between what
should and what can be done by the given object, the closer the given object is
to the ideal system. The real result of action of the system should correspond
to preset (expected) result. This correspondence is the basic characteristic of
any system. Wide variety of systems may be built of a very limited number of
elements. All the diverse material physical universe is built of various
combinations of protons, electrons and neutrons and these combinations are the systems
with specific goals/purposes. We do not know the taste of protons, neutrons and
electrons, but we do know the taste of sugar which molecular atoms are composed
of these elements. Same elements are the constructional
material of both the human being and a stone. The result of the action of pendulum
would be just swaying, but not secretion of hormones, transmission of impulse,
etc. Hence, its goal/purpose and result of action is nothing more but only swaying
at constant frequency. The symphonic orchestra can only play pieces of music,
but not build, fight or merchandize, etc. Generator of random numbers should
generate only random numbers. If all of a sudden it starts generate series of
interdependent numbers, it will cease to be the generator of random
numbers. Real and ideal systems differ from each other in that the former
always have additional properties determined by the imperfection of real
systems. Massive golden royal seal, for example, may be used to crack nuts just
as well as by means of a hammer or a plain stone, but it is intended for other
purpose. Therefore, as it has already been noted above, the concept of “system”
is relative, but not absolute, depending on correspondence between what should
and what can be done by the given object. If the object can implement the goal
set before it, it is the system intended for the achievement of this goal. If it
cannot do so, it is not the system for the given goal, but can be a system
intended for other goals. It does not mater for the achievement of the goal
what the system consists of, but what is important is what it can do. In any
case the possibility to implement the goal determines the system. Therefore,
the system is determined not by the structure of its elements, but by the
extent of precision/accuracy of implementation of the expected result. What is
important is the result of action, rather than the way it was achieved. Absolutely
different elements may be used to build the systems for the solution of identical
problems (goals). The sum of US$200 in the form of US$1 value
coins each and the check for the same amount can perform the same action (may
be used to make the same purchase), although they consist of different
elements. In one case it is metal disks with the engraved signs, while in other
case it is a piece of a paper with the text drawn on it. Hence, they are
systems named “money” with identical purposes, provided that they may be used
for purchase and sale without taking into account, for example, conveniences of
carrying them over or a guarantee against theft.
But the more conditions are stipulated, the less number of elements are
suitable for the achievement of the goal. If we, for example, need large amount
of money, say, US$1.000.000 in cash, and want
it not to be bulky and the guarantee that it is not counterfeit we will only accept
US$100 bank notes received only from bank. The
more the goal is specified, the less is the choice of elements suitable for it.
Thus, the system is determined by the correspondence of the goal set to the
result of its action. The goal is both the task for an object (what it should
make) and its aspiration or desire (what it aspires to). If the given group of
elements can realize this goal, it is a system for the achievement of the goal
set. If it cannot realize this goal, it is not the system intended for the achievement
of the given goal, although it can be the system for the achievement of other goals.
The system operates for the achievement of the goal. Actually, the system transforms
through its actions the goal into the result of action, thus spending its energy.
Look around and everything you’ll see are someone’s materialized goals and
realized desires. On a large scale everything that populates our World is
systems and just systems, and all of them are intended for a wide range of
various purposes. But we do not always know the purposes of many of these
systems and therefore not all objects are perceived by us as systems.
Reactions of systems to similar external influences are always constant,
because the goal is always determined and constant. Therefore, the result of
action should always be determined, i.e. identical and constant (a principle of
consistency of correspondence of the system’s action result to the appropriate
result), and for this purpose the system’s actions should be the same (the
principle of a constancy of correspondence of actual actions of the system to
the due ones). If the result fails to be constant it cannot be appropriate and
equal to the preset result (the principle of consistency/permanency of the result
of action). The conservation law proceeds/results/ from the
principle of consistency/permanency of action. Let us call the permanency of
reaction “purposefulness”, as maintaining the similarity (permanency/consistency)
of reaction is the goal of a system. Hence, the law of conservation is determined
by the goal/purpose. The things conserved would be those only, which correspond
to the achievement of the system’s goal. This includes both actions per se and the
sequence of actions and elements needed to perform these actions, and the
energy spent for the performance of these actions, because the system would
seek to maintain its movement towards the goal and this movement will be
purposeful. Therefore, the purpose determines the conservation law and the law
of cause-and-effect limitations (see below), rather than other
way round. The conservation law is one of the organic, if
not the most fundamental, laws of our universe. One of particular consequences
of the conservation law is that the substance never emerges from nothing and does
not transform into nothing (the law of conservation of matter). It always exists.
It might have been non-existent before origination of the World, if there was origination
of the World per se, and it might not be existent after its end, if it is to
end, but in our World it does neither emerge, nor
disappear. A matter is substance and energy. The substance (deriving from the /Rus/
word “thing”, “object” ) may exist in various combinations of its forms
(liquid, solid, gaseous and other, as well as various bodies), including the living
forms. But matter is always some kind of objects, from elementary particles to
galaxies,
including living objects.Substance consists of elements. Some forms of
substances may turn into others (chemical, nuclear and other structural
transformations) at the expense of regrouping of elements by change
of ties between them. Physical form of the conservation law is represented by
Einstein’s formula. A substance may turn into energy and other way round.
Energy (from Greek “energeia” - action, activity) is the general quantitative
measure of movement and interaction of all kinds of matter. Energy in nature
does not arise from anything and does not disappear; it only can change its one
form into another. The concept of energy brings all natural phenomena together.
Interaction between the systems or between the elements of systems is in effect
the link between them. From the standpoint of system, energy is the measure
(quantity) of interaction between the elements of the system or between the systems
which needs to be accomplished for the establishment of link between them. For
example, one watt may be material measure of energy. Measures of energy in
other systems, such as social, biological, mental and
other, are not yet developed. Any objects represent the systems, therefore
interactions between them are interactions between the systems. But systems are
formed at the expense of interaction between their elements and formations of
inter-element relations between them. In the process of interaction between the
systems intersystem relations are established. Any action, including
interaction, needs energy. Therefore, when establishing relations/links/ the
energy is being “input”. Consequently, as interaction between the elements of the
system or different systems is the relation/link between them, the latter is the
energy-related concept. In other words, when creating a system from elements
and its restructuring from simple into complex, the energy is spent for the
establishment of new relations /links /connections between the elements. When
the system is destructed the links between the elements collapse and energy is
released. Systems are conserved at the expense of energy of relations/links
between its elements. It is the internal energy of a system. When these
relations/links are destructed the energy is released, but the system itself as
an object disappears. Consequently, the internal energy of a system is the
energy of relations/link between the elements of the system. In endothermic reactions
the energy used for the establishment of connections/links/relations comes to the
system from the outside. In exothermic reactions internal energy of the system is
released at the expense of rupture of these connections between its internal
own elements which already existed prior to the moment when reaction occurred.
But when the connection is already formed, by virtue of conservation law its
energy is not changed any more, if no influence is exerted upon the system. For
example, in establishing of connections/links between the two nuclei of deuterium
(2D2) the nucleus 1Не4 is formed and the energy is released (for the purpose of
simplicity details are omitted, for example, reaction proton-proton). And the
1Не4 nucleus mass becomes slightly less than the sum of masses of two deuterium
nuclei by the value multiple of the energy released, in accordance with the
physical expression of the conservation law. Thus, in process of merge of deuterium
nuclei part of their intra-nuclear bonds collapses and it is for this reason
that the merge of these nuclei becomes possible. The energy of connection
between the elements of deuterium nuclei is much stronger than that of the bond
between the two deuterium nuclei. Therefore, when part of connections between
elements of deuterium nuclei is destructed the energy is released, part of it being
used for thermonuclear synthesis, i.e. the establishment of connection/bond between
the two deuterium nuclei (extra-nuclear connection/bond in respect to deuterium
nuclei), while other part is released outside helium nucleus. But our World is tamped
not only with matter. Other objects, including social, spiritual, cultural,
biological, medical and others, are real as well. Their reality is manifested
in that they can actively influence both each other and other kinds of matter
(through the performance of other systems and human beings). And they also
exist and perform not chaotically, but are subjected to specific, though strict
laws of existence. The law of conservation applies to them as well, because
they possess their own kinds of “energy” and they did not come into being in a
day, but may only turn one into another. Any system can be described in terms
of qualitative and quantitative characteristics. Unlike material objects, the
behavior
of
other objects can be described nowadays only qualitatively, as they for the
present the have no their own “thermodynamics”, for example, “psychodynamics”.
We do not know, for example, what quantity of “Watt” of spiritual energy needs
to be applied to solve difficult psychological problem, but we know that
spiritual energy is needed for such a solution. Nevertheless, these objects are
the full-value systems as well, and they are structured based on the same
principles as other material systems. As systems are the groups of elements,
and changes of forms of substances represent the change of connections/bonds
between the elements of substance, then changes of forms of substances represent
the changes of forms of systems. Hence, the form is determined by the specificity
of connections/bonds/ties between the elements of systems. “Nothing in this
world lasts for ever”, the world is continually changing, whereby one kind of
forms of matter turn into other, but it is only forms that vary, while matter is
indestructible and always conserved. At the same time, alteration of forms is also
subjected to the law of conservation and it is this law that determines the way
in which one kind of forms should replace other forms of matter. Forms only
alter on account of change of connections/ties between the elements of systems.
As far as each connection between the system elements has energetic equivalent,
any system contains internal energy which is the sum of energies of
connections/bonds between all elements. The “form: (Latin, philos.) is a
totality of relations determining the object. The form is contraposed to matter,
the content of an object. According to Aristotle, the form is the actuating
force that forms the objects and exists beyond the latter. According to Kant,
form is everything brought in by the subject of cognition to the content of the
cognizable matter - space, time and substance of the form of cognitive ability;
all categories of thinking: quantity, quality, relation, substance, place,
time, etc., are forms, the product of ability of abstraction, formation of general
concepts of our intellect. However, these are not quite correct definitions.
The form cannot be contraposed to matter because it is inseparably linked with the
latter, it is the form of matter itself. The form cannot be a force either, although
it probably pertains to energy because it is determined by energy-bearing connections
within the system. According to Kant, form is a purely subjective concept, as it
only correlates with intellectual systems and their cognitive abilities. Why,
do not the forms exist without knowing them? Any system has one or other shape/look
of form. And the system’s form is determined by type and nature of connections/relations/bonds
between the system elements. Therefore, the form is a kind of connections
between the system elements. Since the systems may interact, new connections/bonds
between them are thus established and new forms of systems emerge. In other
words, in process of interaction between the systems new systems emerge as new
forms. The energy is always expended in the course of interaction between the systems.
Logic form of the conservation law is the law of cause-and-effect limitations because
it is corresponded by a logical connective “if....., then….” Possible choice of
external influences (causes) to which the system should react is limited by the
first part of this connective “if...”, whereas the actions of systems
(consequences) are limited by the second part “then...”. It is for this reason
that the law is called the law of cause-and-effect limitations. This law reads
“Any consequence has its cause /every why has a wherefore/”. Nothing
appears without the reason/cause and nothing disappears for no special reason/cause.
There are no consequences without the reason/cause, there is no reaction
without the influence. It is unambiguousness and certainty of reaction of
systems to the external influence that lays the cornerstone of determinism in
nature. Every specific cause is followed by specific consequence. The system should
always react only to certain external influences and always react only in a certain
way. Chemoreceptor intended for О2 would always react only
to О2, but
not to Na +, Ca ++ or glucose. At that,
it will give out certain potential of action, rather than a portion of hormone,
mechanical contraction or something else. Any system differs in specificity of
the external influence and specificity of the reaction. The certainty of
external influences and the reactions to them imposes limitations on the types
of the latter. Therefore, the need in the following arises from
the law of cause-and-effect limitations: execution of any
specific (certain) action to achieve specific (certain) purpose; existence of
any specific (certain) system (subsystem) for the implementation of such action,
as no action occurs by itself; sequences of
actions: the system would always start to perform and produce the result of
action only after external influence is exerted on it because it does not have
free will for making decision on the implementation of the action. Hence, the
result of the system performance can always appear only after certain actions are
done by the system. These actions can only be done following the external
influence. External influence is primary and the result of action is secondary.
Of all possible actions those will be implemented only which are caused by
external influence and limited (stipulated) by the possibilities of the responding
system. If, following the former external influence, the goal is already achieved
and there is no new external influence after delivery of the result of action,
the system should be in a state of absolute rest and not operate, because it is
only the goal that makes the system operate, and this goal is already achieved.
No purpose - no actions. If new external influence arises a new goal appears as
well, and then the system will start again to operate and new
result of action will be produced.
Рефераты бесплатно, курсовые, дипломы, научные работы, реферат бесплатно, сочинения, курсовые работы, реферат, доклады, рефераты, рефераты скачать, рефераты на тему и многое другое.