The manager as a teacher: selected aspects of stimulation of scientsfsc thinking
Quantity of the result of
action. To achieve the preset goal the designation of the quality of the result
of action only is not sufficient. The goal sets not only “what action the
object should deliver” (quality of the result of action), but also “how much of
this action” the given object should deliver (quantity of the result of
action). And the system should seek to perform exactly as much of specific
action as it is necessary, neither more nor less than that. The quality of
action is determined by SFU type. The quantity is
determined by the quantity of SFU. There are three quantitative characteristics
of the result of action: maximum, minimum and optimum quantity of action. In
the real world gradation of the results of action is required from the real
systems. Therefore, the system performance should deliver neither maximum nor
minimum, but optimum result. Optimum means performance based on the principle
“it is necessary and sufficient”. It is necessary that the result of action
should be such-and-such, but not another in terms of quality and adequate in
terms of quantity, neither more nor less. Hence, the SFU cannot be the
full-fledged systems. The systems are needed in which controllable/adjustable
grading of the result of action would be possible. For example, it is required
that the pressure of 100 mm Hg is maintained in the tissue capillaries. This
phrase encompasses presetting of everything what is included in the concept
“necessary and sufficient” at once. It is necessary... pressure, and it is
enough... 10 mm Hg. It is possible to collate the SFU providing pressure, but
not of 10 mm Hg, but, for instance, 100 mm Hg. It is too much. It is probably
possible to collate the SFU which can provide pressure
of 10 mm Hg and at the moment it might be sufficient. But if the situation has
suddenly changed and the requirement is now 100 mm Hg rather than 10 mm Hg,
what should be done then? Should one run about and search for SFU which may
provide the 100 mm Hg? And what if it’s impossible to make such system which
would be able to provide any pressure in a range, for example, from 0 to 100 mm
Hg, depending on a situation? In order to provide the quantity of the result of
action which is necessary at the moment, the grading of the results of action
of systems is required. It could have been achieved by building the systems
from a set of homotypic SFU of a type of composite SFU flow diagram. It has
what is needed for the graduation of the result of action as it contains
numerous SFU. If it could be possible to do it so that it enables actuating
from one to all of SFU, depending on the need, the result of action would have
as much gradation as many SFU is present in the system. The higher the required
degree of accuracy, the more of minor gradations of the result of action should
be available. Therefore, instead of one SFU with its extremely large scale
result of action it is necessary to use such amount of SFU with minor result of
action which sum is equal to the required maximum, while the accuracy of
implementation of the goal is equal to the result of action of one SFU.
However, composite SFU has no possibility to control the result of action as it
has no the unit able of doing it. To deliver the result of action precisely
equal to the preset one, it (the result of action) needs to be continually
measured and measuring data compared with the task (with command, with
“database”). The “database” is a list of those due values of result of action
which the system should deliver depending on the magnitude of external
influence and algorithm of the control block operation. The goal of the system
is that each value of the measured external influence should be corresponded by
strictly determined value of the result of action (due value).
To this effect it is necessary “to see” (to measure) the result of action of
the system to compare it to the appropriate/due result. And for this purpose
the control block should have a “Y” receptor which can measure the result of
action and there should be a communication/transmission link (reciprocal paths)
through which the information from a “Y” receptor would pass to the
analyzer-informant, where the result of this measurement should be compared
with what should be/occur (with “database”). The control block of the system
should compare external influence with the due value, whereas the due value
should be compared with own result of action to see its conformity or
discrepancy with the due value. Composite SFU still can compare external
influence with eigen result of action, because it has DPC, whereas it can not
any longer compare due value with the result of eigen action just because it
does not have anything able of doing it (there are no appropriate elements).
Simple control block (negative
feedback - NF). In order for the control block of the system to “see” (to feel
and measure) the result of action of the system, it should have a corresponding
“Y” receptor at the outlet/exit point/ of system and the communication link
between it and a “Y” receptor (reciprocal path). The logic of operation of such
control consists in that if the scale of the result of action is lager than
that of the preset result it is necessary to reduce it, having activated
smaller number of SFU, and if it is small-scale it is necessary to increase it
by actuating larger number of SFU. For this reason such link is called
negative. And as the information moves back from the outlet of system towards
its beginning, it is called feedback/back action. As a
result the negative feedback (NF) occurs. A “Y” receptor and reciprocate path
comprise NF and together with the analyzer-informant and efferent cannels
(stimulator) form a NF loop. Depending on the need and based on the NF
information the control block would engage or disengage the functions of
controllable SFU as necessary. The difference of this system from the composite
SFU lies only in the presence of a “Y” receptor which measures the result of
action and reciprocal paths through which the information is transferred from
this receptor to the analyzer. The number of active SFU is determined by NF.
The NF is realized by means of NF loop which includes the “Y” receptor,
reciprocal path, through which information from “Y” receptor is transferred to
the analyzer-informant, analyzer proper and efferent channels through which the
control block decisions are transferred to the effectors (controllable SFU).
Thus, the system, unlike SFU, contains both DPC and NF. Direct positive
(controllable) communication activates the system, while negative feedback
determines the number of activated SFU. For example, if
larger number of alveolar capillaries in lungs will be opened compared to the
number of the alveoli with appropriate gas composition, arterialization of
venous blood will be incomplete, and there will be a need to close a part of
alveolar capillaries which “wash” by bloodstream the alveoli with gas
composition not suitable for gas exchange. If the number of such opened
capillaries will be smaller, overloading of pulmonary blood circulation would
occur and the pressure in pulmonary artery will increase and there will be a
need to open part of alveolar capillaries. In any case the informant of
pulmonary blood circulation would snap into action and the control block would
decide what part of capillaries needs to be opened or closed. Hence, the
diffusion part of vascular channel of pulmonary bloodstream is the system
containing simple control block. The goal of the system is
that the result of action of “Y” should be equal to the command “M” (Y=M).
Actions of system aimed at the achievement of goal are implemented by executive
elements. Control block would watch the accuracy of implementation of actions.
The control block containing DPC and NF loop is simple. The algorithm of simple
control blocks operation is not complex. The NF loop would trace continually
the result of performance of executive elements (SFU). If the result of action
turns out to be of a larger scale than the preset result, it needs to be
reduced, and if the result is of a smaller scale than the preset one it needs
to be increased. Control parameters (the “database”) are set through the
command; for example, what should be the correlation between external influence
and the result of action, or what level of the result of action will need to be
retained, etc. At that, the maximum accuracy would be the result of action of one
SFU (quantum of action). Systems with NF, as well as composite SFU, also contain
two types of objects: executive elements (SFU) (effectors which carry out
specific actions for the achievement of the preset overall goal of
the system) and the control block (DPC and NF loop). But besides the “Õ”
informant, control block of the system also contains the “Y” informant (NF).
Therefore, it has information both on the external influence and the result of
action. Some complexification of the control block brings about a very
essential result. The reason for such a complexification is the need to achieve
optimally accurate implementation of the goal of the system. The NF ensures the
possibility of regulation of quantity of the result of action, i.e. the system
with NF may perform any required action in an optimal way, from minimum to
maximum, accurate to one quantum of action. Generally speaking, any real system
at that has the third type of objects: service elements, i.e. substructure
elements without which executive elements cannot operate. For example, the
aircraft has wings to fly, but it also has wheels to take off and land. The
haemoglobin molecule contains haem which contains 4 SFU (ligands) and globin,
the protein which does not participate directly in transportation of oxygen but
without which haem cannot work. We have slightly touched upon the issue of
existence of the third type of objects (service elements) for one purpose only
to know that they are always present in any system, but we will
not go into detail of their function. We will only note that they represent the
same ordinary systems aimed at serving other systems. Systems with NF can solve
most of the tasks in a far better manner than simple or composite SFU. The
presence of NF almost does not complexicate the system. We have seen that even
simple SFU is a very complex formation including a set of components. Composite
SFU is as many times more complex compared to simple SFU as is the number
almost equal to that of simple SFU. The system with NF is
only supplemented by one receptor and the communication link between receptor
and analyzer (reciprocal path). But the effect of such change in the structure
of control block is very large-scale and only depends on the algorithm of the
control block operation. Any SFU (simple and composite) can implement only
minimum or maximum action. Systems with NF can surely deliver the optimal
result of action, from minimum to maximum; they are accurate and stable. Their
accuracy depends only on the value of quantum of action of separate SFU and the
NF profundity/intensity/ (see below). Stability is stipulated by that the
system always “sees” the result of action and can compare it with the appropriate/due
one and correct it if divergence occurs. In real systems the causes for the
divergence are always present, since they exist in the real world where there
always exists perturbation action/disturbing influences. Hence, one can see
that it is NF that turns SFU into real systems. How does
the control block manage the system? What parameters are characteristic of it?
Any control block is characterized by three DPC parameters and the same number
of NF loop parameters. For DPC it is a minimal level of controllable input
stimulus (threshold of sensitivity); maximal level of
controllable input stimulus (range of input stimulus sensitivity); time of
engagement of control (decision-making time). For NF loop it is
minimal level of controllable result of action (threshold of sensitivity of NF
loop – NF profundity/intensity); maximal level of controllable result of action
(range of sensitivity of the result of action); time of
engagement of control (decision-making time). Minimal level of
controllable input signal for DPC is the sensitivity threshold of signal of the
“Õ” receptor wherefrom the analyzer-informant recognizes that the external
influence has already begun. For example, if ðÎ2 has
reached 60 mm Hg the sphincter should be opened (1 SFU is actuated), if the ðÎ2 value
is smaller, then it is closed. Any values of ðÎ2
smaller than 60 mm Hg would not lead to the opening of sphincter, because these
are sub-threshold values. Consequently, 60 mm Hg is the operational threshold
of sphincter. Maximum level of controllable entrance signal (range) for DPC is
the level of signal about external influence at which all SFU are actuated. The
system cannot react to the further increase in the input signal by the
extension of its function, as it does not have any more of SFU reserves. For
example, if ðÎ2 has reached 100 mm Hg all sphincters should be
opened (all SFU are activated). Any values of ðÎ2 larger
than 100 mm Hg will not lead to the opening of additional sphincters, because
all of them are already opened, i.e. the values of 60-100 mm Hg are the range
of activation of the system of sphincters. Time of DPC
activation is a time interval between the onset of external influence and the
beginning of the system’s operation. The system would never respond immediately
after the onset of external influence. Receptors need to feel a signal, the
analyzer-informant needs to make the decision, the effectors transfer the
guiding impact to the command entry points of the executive elements - all this
takes time. The minimal level of the controllable exit signal for NF is a
threshold of sensitivity of a signal of the “Y” receptor, wherefrom the
analyzer-informant recognizes whether there is a discrepancy between the result
of action of the system and its due value. The discrepancy should be equal to
or more than the quantum of action of single SFU. For example, if one sphincter
is to be opened and the bloodstream should be minimal (one quantum of action),
whereas two sphincters are actually opened and the bloodstream is twice as
intensive (two quanta of action), the “Y” receptor should feel an extra
quantum. If it is able of doing so, its sensitivity is equal to one quantum.
Sensitivity is defined by the NF profundity/intensity. The
NF profundity/intensity is a number of quanta of action of the single SFU
system which sum is identified as the discrepancy between the actual and
appropriate/proper action. The NF profundity/intensity is preset by the
command. The highest possible NF profundity/intensity is the sensitivity of
discrepancy in one quantum of action of single SFU. The less the NF
profundity/intensity, the less is sensitivity, the more it is “rough”. In other
words, the less the NF profundity/intensity, the larger value of the
discrepancy between the result of action and the proper result is interpreted
as discrepancy. For example, even two (three, ten, etc.) quanta of action of
two (three, ten, etc.) SFU is interpreted as discrepancy. Minimal NF
profundity/intensity is its absence. In this case any discrepancy of the result
of action with the proper one is not interpreted by the control block as
discrepancy. The result of action would be maximal and the system with simple
control block with zero NF profundity/intensity would turn into composite SFU
with DPC (with simplest/elementary control block). For example, the system of the Big
Circle of Blood circulation for microcirculation in fabric capillaries should
hold average pressure of 100 mm Hg accurate to 1 mm Hg. At the same time,
average arterial pressure can fluctuate from 80 to 200 mm Hg. The value “100 mm
Hg” determines the level of controllable result of action. The value “from 80
to 200 mm Hg” is the range of controllable external (entry) influence. The
value of “1 mm Hg” is determined by NF profundity/intensity. Smaller NF
profundity/intensity would control the parameter with smaller degree of
accuracy, for example, to within 10 mm Hg (more roughly) or 50 mm Hg (even more
roughly), while the higher NF profundity/intensity would do it with higher
degree of accuracy, for example to within 0.1 mm Hg (finer). Maximal NF
sensitivity is limited to the value of quantum of action of SFU which are part
of the system, and the NF profundity/intensity. But in any case, if discrepancy
between the level of the controllable and preset parameters occurs to the
extent higher than the value of the preset accuracy, the NF loop should “feel”
this divergence and “force” executive elements to perform so that to eliminate
the discrepancy of the goal and the result of action. Maximal level of
controllable outlet/exit signal (range) for NF is the level of signal about the
result of action of the system at which all SFU are actuated. The system cannot
react to the further increase in entry signal by increase in its function any
more,
because
it has no more of SFU reserves. The time of actuating of NF control is the time
interval between the onset of discrepancy of signal about the result of action
with the preset result and the beginning of the system’s operation. All these
parameters can be “built in” DPC and NF loops or set primordially (the command is
entered at their “birth” and they do not further vary any more), or can be
entered through the command later, and these parameters can
be changed by means of input of a new command from the outside. For this
purpose there should be a channel of input of the command. Simple control block
in itself cannot change any of these parameters.
Absolutely all systems have control block, but it cannot be always found
explicitly. In the aircraft or a spaceship this block is presented by the
on-board computer, a box with electronics. In human beings and animals such
block is the brain, or at least nervous system. But where is the control block
located in a plant or bacterium? Where is the control block located in atom or
molecule, or, for example, the control block in a nail?
The easier the system, the more difficult it is for us to single out forms of
control block habitual for us. However, it is present in any systems. Executive
elements are responsible for the quality of result of action, while the control
block – for its quantity. The control block can be, for example, intra- or
internuclear and intermolecular connections/bonds. For example, in atom the SFU
functions are performed by electrons, protons and neutrons, and those of
control block by intra-nuclear forces or, in other words, interactions. The
intra-atomic command, for example, is the condition that there can be no more
than 2 electrons at the first electronic level, 8 electrons at the second
level, etc., (periodic law determined by Pauli principle), this level being
rigidly designated by quantum numbers. If the electron has somewise received
additional energy and has risen above its level it cannot retain it for a long
time and will go back, thereby releasing surplus of energy in the form of a
photon. At that, not just any energy can lift the electron onto the other
level, but only and only specific one (the corresponding quantum of energy). It
also rises not just onto any level, but only onto the strictly preset one. If
the energy of the external influence is less than the corresponding quantum,
the electron level stabilization system would keep it in a former orbit (in a
former condition) until the energy of external influence exceeded the
corresponding level. If the energy of external influence is being continually
accrued in a ramp-up mode, the electron would rise from one level to other not
in a linear mode but by leaps (which are strictly defined by quantum laws) into
higher orbits as soon as the energy of influence exceeds certain threshold
levels. The number of levels of an electron’s orbit in atom is probably very
large and equal to the number of spectral lines of corresponding atom, but each
level is strictly fixed and determined by quantum laws. Hence, some kind of
mechanism (system of stabilization of quantum levels) strictly watches the
performance of these laws, and this mechanism should have its own SFU and
control blocks. The number of levels of the electron’s orbit is possibly
determined by the number of intranuclear SFU (protons and neutrons or other
elementary particles), which result of action is the positioning of electron in
an electronic orbit. For example, in a nail system the command would be its
form and geometrical values. This command is
entered into the control block one-time at the moment of nail manufacture when
its values (at the moment of its “birth”) are measured and is not entered later
any more. But when the command is already entered the system
should execute this command, i.e. in this case the nail
should keep its form and values even if it is being
hammered. In any control block type the command should be
entered
into
at some point of time in one way or another. We
cannot make just a nail “in general”, but only the one with concrete form and
preset values. Therefore, at the moment of its manufacture (i.e. one-time) we
give it the “task” to be of such-and-such form and
values. The command can vary if there is a channel of input of the command. For
example, when turning on the air conditioner we can “give it a task” to hold
air temperature at 20°Ñ and thereafter change the command for 25°Ñ. The nail
does not have a channel of input of the order, while the air conditioner does.
Consequently, the system with simple control block is the object which can
react to certain external influence, and the result of its
action is graduated and stable. The number of gradation is determined by the
number SFU in the system and the accuracy is determined by quantum of action
(the size, result) of single SFU and NF
profundity/intensity. The result of action is accurate because the control
block supervises it by means of NF. Type of control is based on mismatch/error
plus error-rate control/. Control would only start after the occurrence of
external influence or delivery of the result of action. Stability of the result
of action is determined by NF profundity/intensity. System reaction is
conditioned by type and number of its SFU. Simple control block has three
channels of control: one external (command) and two internal (DPC and NF). It
reacts to external influence through DPC (the “Õ” informant) and to its own
result of action of the system (the “Y” informant) through NF, whereas it
controls executive elements of the system through efferent channels. Analogues
of systems with simple control block are all objects of inanimate/inorganic
world: gas clouds, crystals, various solid bodies, planets, planetary and
stellar systems, etc. Biological analogues of systems with simple control block
are protophytes and metaphytes, bacteria and all vegetative/autonomic systems
of an organism, including, for example, external gas exchange system, blood
circulation system, external gaseous metabolism system, digestion or immune
systems. Even single-celled animal organisms of amoebas and infusorian type,
inferior animal classes (jellyfish etc.) are the systems with complex control
blocks/units (see below). All vegetative and many motor reflexes of higher
animals which actuate at all levels starting from intramural nerve ganglia
through hypothalamus are structured as simple control blocks. If they are
affected by guiding influence of cerebral cortex, higher type (complex)
reflexes come into service (see below). Analogues of the “Õ” informant receptors
are all sensitive receptors (haemo-, baro-, thermo- and other receptors located
in various bodies, except visual, acoustical and olfactory receptors which are
part of the “C” informant, see below). Analogues of the “Y” informant receptors
are all proprio-sensitive receptors which can also be haemo-, baro-, thermo-
and other receptors located in different organs. Analogues of the control block
stimulators are all motor and effector nerves stimulating cross-striped,
unstriated muscular systems and secretory cells, as well as hormones,
prostaglandins and other metabolites having any effect on the functions of any
systems of organism. Analogues of the analyzer-informant in the mineral and
vegetative media are only connections/bonds between the elements of a type of
direct connection of “X” and “Y” informants with effectors (axon reflexes). In
vegetative systems of animals connections are also
of a type of direct connection of “X” and “Y” informants with effectors
(humoral and metabolic regulation), as well as axon reflex (controls only
nervules without involvement of nerve cell itself) and unconditioned reflexes
(at the level of intra-organ intramural and other neuronic formations right up
to hypothalamus). Thus, using DPC and NF and regulating the performance of its
SFU the system produces the results of action qualitatively and quantitatively
meeting the preset goal.