The manager as a teacher: selected aspects of stimulation of scientsfsc thinking

Self-training control block. No brain is able to hold enormous “knowledge bases” on all possible conditions of the entire world around. Therefore, one of the reasons why each species of animals occupies corresponding biosphere niche is the necessity to limit the volume of “knowledge base”. Antelope knows what the seal does not, and vice versa. In each separate ecological niche the quantity of possible situations is much less, than in all ecological niches all together. Therefore, relatively small volume of necessary knowledge is required in separate ecological niches. However, if one tries to somehow input /in the brain/ all the information currently available on all the situations which have already been occurring in the world, it would not help either, because the world alters continually and many situations have never ever arose. The “knowledge base” basically may not have information on what has not yet happened in the world. Naturally, the “base of decisions” cannot contain all the possible options of decisions either. “Genetic knowledge” contains only what the ancestors of animals have experienced. They materially cannot have knowledge of what is going to happen. When new situation arises, the system cannot identify, classify it and make decision on it. Even if this situation will occur repeatedly, if the system is unable of self-training it will every time fail to correctly identify a situation because such situations are not contained in its “knowledge base”. The ant runs along the fence, going up and down, and cannot guess that it is possible to easily bypass the fence. Millions years ago, when its genetically input “knowledge base” was formed the fences were non-existent. If one tries to sink a thread on the web the spider will leave this web and will weave a new one because it is not familiar with such situation and it does not know and cannot learn that it is possible to make a hole in a web so that the thread does not interfere. All this is due to the fact that insects as a class of animals are not capable of learning anything. They may be perfect builders amazing us with their sophisticated and fine webs, nests and other creations of their work. But they can only build based on their innate knowledge. They do have “knowledge base” (instincts), but they do not have cerebral structures (elements of control block) capable of supplementing their own “knowledge base” with new existential situations. They do not have reflexes on new stimuli/exciters/. To be able to identify and classify new situations the control block should be able to enter the descriptions of these situations in its “knowledge base”. But at first it should be able to identify that it is a completely new situation, for example, by comparing it to what already exists in its “knowledge base”. Then it should identify the importance (the value worth) of this particular situation for the achievement of its goal. If there is no any correlation between the new situation and the fulfillment of the goal of the system, there is no sense in remembering this situation, otherwise the brain “will be crammed with trash”. By singling out and classifying external situations (identifying them) and finding interrelation (correlation) between these situations, by decisions made and the achievement of the goal of the system the control block learns to develop appropriate decisions. Thus, the self-training decision-making block continually supplements its “knowledge base” and “base of decisions”. But under the conservation law nothing occurs by itself. In order for the control block to be able to perform the above actions it should have appropriate elements. The major element of the kind is the analyzer-correlator. It is the basis whereon reflex on new stimulus/exciter or a new situation may emerge. Its task is to detect a new situation, identify that it is new, determine the degree of correlation between this situation and its own goal. If there is no correlation between this new situation and implementation of the goal by the system, there is no sense in remembering and loading its limited “database” memory. If the degree of correlation is high it is necessary to enter this situation in the “knowledge base” and develop a decision on the choice of own actions for the achievement of its own goal and thereafter to define whether there is correlation between the decision made and the achievement of the goal. If there is no correlation between the decision made and the fulfillment of the goal by the system it is necessary to arrive at other solution and again determine the correlation between the decision made and the achievement of the goal. And it should be repeated in that way until sufficiently high correlation between the decision made and the achievement of goal is obtained. Only afterwards the correct computed decision should be entered into the “base of decisions”. This is the essence of self-training. Only the analyzer-correlator enables self-training process. As a matter of fact, the system’s self-training means the emergence of reflexes to new stimuli/exciters or situations. Consequently, these are only possible when the control block contains analyzer-correlator. Biological analogue of the analyzer-correlator is the cerebral cortex. The presence of cortex determines the possibility of emergence of reflexes to new situations. Cerebral cortex is only present in animals which represent sufficiently high level of development. Non-biological analogues of systems with such self-training control block are unknown to us. Computer self-training systems are built by man and the process of self-training at the end of the day always involves human cerebral cortex. There exist various so-called “intellectual” systems, but full-fledged intelligence is only inherent in human being. Let us specify that there are no self-training systems, but there are their self-training control blocks, because executive elements cannot be trained in anything. There may be systems with simple executive elements, but with control blocks of varying complexity. In order for the control block to be a self-training structure it should contain three types of analyzers: the analyzer-informant with “database”; the analyzer-classifier with the “knowledge base” and “base of decisions” (which is able of classifying external situation on the basis of the information from the “C” informant); the analyzer-correlator (able of identifying the interrelation – correlation between various external situations and the results of actions of the given system and transferring the knowledge obtained and decisions to the analyzer-classifier to enter them in the “knowledge base” and the “base of decisions”). Thus, the system with self-training control block is an object which can learn to distinguish new external influences and situations in which such influence may be exerted. For this purpose it has the analyzer-correlator. In other respects it is similar to the systems with complex control block. It can respond to specific external influence and external situation and its reaction would be stipulated by type and number of its SFU. The result of action of the system is also graduated. The number of gradations is determined by the number of executive SFU in the system. It also has analyzer-qualifier with “knowledge base” and “base of decisions” and the analyzer-informant with “database”, DPC (the “X” informant) and NF (the “Y” informant), which operate the system through the stimulator (efferent paths). In inorganic/inanimate nature there are no analogues of systems with self-training control blocks. Biological analogues of systems with complex control block are all animals with sufficiently developed nervous system in which it is possible to develop reflexes to new situations (should not be confused with conditioned reflexes). The analogue of analyzer-correlator is only the cerebral cortex.

Signaling systems. The appearance in the control block of the analyzer-correlator enabled the possibility to enhance its personal experience by self-training and continually update its “knowledge base” and “base of decisions”. But it cannot transfer its experience to other systems. Personal experience is limited howsoever an individual would try to expand it. In any case collective experience is much broader than that of an individual. In order for one individual to be able to transfer his/her experience to other individual separate device is needed enabling “downloading” the information from one “knowledge base” to another. For example, the antelope knows that the cheetah is very dangerous because it feeds on antelopes and wishes to transfer this knowledge to its calf. How can it be done? For example, the antelope can simulate a situation playing a performance in which all characters are real objects, i.e. it should expose itself to cheetah so that the calf could see it to gain its own experience by the example of its mum. The calf will see the situation and new reflex to new situation will be developed and the calf will be on its guard against the cheetahs. Of course, it is an absurd way as it does not solve the problem of survival. Anyway, only one out of the two antelopes will survive. So, what can be done in principle? How one self-training system can transfer its individual experience to other self-training system? It is necessary to simulate a situation by making a show in which all characters are abstract objects and replace real objects with others, which are conferred conventional connection/link between them and the real objects (abstracting of objects). Such abstract objects are prearranged signals. The systems “agree” (stipulate a condition) that if such-and-such signal occurs, it will speak of something agreed upon. It is the development of conditioned reflex that represents replacement of real influence for abstract influence. It is a so-called first signaling system which is based on conditioned reflexes. The appearance of cheetah causes producing a panic sound by an antelope. Consequently such sound is associated with the appearance of cheetah and it becomes an abstract substitute of cheetah itself, i.e. prearranged signal. Any motional signal may be an abstract substitute of danger, i.e. raising or dropping of tail, special jumps, producing special sounds, mimicry, etc. These motional signals affect the systems in the herd and based on this signal they may know about a danger nearby. In other words, there was a replacement of real external influence by some abstract thing associated with this object. Abstracting of real action by its symbol (vocal, motional, etc) took place. For such abstracting the control block needs to have an additional device – the analyzer-abstractor which should contain the “base of abstraction” (“base of prearranged signals”). The “base of abstraction” contains a set of descriptions of certain signals which are perceived as conditional situations and correspond to other certain situations. A prearranged signal is the appearance of some object or movement (situational signal) which usually does not appear in common routine situation. The occurrence of prearranged signal does not in itself affect in any way the achievement of the goals by the systems. For example, raising and fluffing out a tail does not influence in any way neither food intake, nor running, etc. But the occurrence of a signal is connected with the occurrence of such situation which can affect the achievement of goals by the systems. Given the ability to abstract from concrete situations, then not even seeing a cheetah, but having seen the lifted tails, may be conducive to guessing that a cheetah is nearby. Abstracting of real external influence by vocal or motional symbol is performed by the first signaling system. It supplements the analyzer-correlator and operates similarly to it, i.e. is self-training. Unlike the “knowledge base” the “base of abstraction” of a newly born system is empty. It is being filled out during the system’s lifetime on account of possibility of self-training, and the newly obtained knowledge is then downloaded in the “knowledge base”. Sometimes behavior of animals seems to be indicative of their possibility to transfer the information from one to another even before the occurrence of the respective situation. For example, some lions go to an ambush, others start driving the antelopes, so they kind of foresee the situation. But they only know about ambush possibilities based on their own experience. They do not have other means of transfer of such information to their younger generation except for demonstrating this situation to them. A new way for the development of systems (or rather their control blocks) is being opened at this point, the way of socialization – associations of animals in groups for the enhancement of their own experience because prearranged signals are only intended for an information transfer from one system (subject) to another. There are probably several levels of such analyzer-abstractor and the degree of abstraction which may be attained by this or other subject depends on the number of these levels. One may abstract external influences, external situations, real objects and even process of self-training proper. But in any case one should be able to abstract and understand abstract symbols. This is what analyzer-abstractor does. Abstracting of real external influence, object or situation by means of situational prearranged signal (a pose, a sound, a movement, some kind of action) may be performed by the first signaling system. Abstracting of real external influence, an object or a situation by means of sign /emblematic/ prearranged signal (symbol) can only be performed by second signaling system. Control block having the second signaling system is an intellectual control block. Intelligence depends on the presence and the degree of development (number of levels) of analyzer-abstractor. In animals the second signaling system is very poorly developed or undeveloped at all. If the horse dashes aside from a whip, it is not even the first signaling system that works in this case, but rather a reflex on the new situation which the horse has learnt when it first encountered a whip. If the horse is coarsely shouted at even without showing a whip to it, it will draw necessary conclusions. That’s the point at which the first signaling system takes effect. But if the horse is shown an inscription which reads that it now will be beaten, the animal will not react to in any way because it cannot and will never be able to read since it does not have second signaling system. There are animals which apparently are capable of speaking and understanding words, written symbols and even making elementary arithmetic operations. But the second signaling system is very poorly developed in them and is literally “in embryo” condition. When the trainer demonstrates the dog’s counting up to five, he bluffs in a way as in fact the dog picks up some motional signals from him, i.e. the second rather than the first signaling system takes effect. The second signaling system is developed to the utmost extent only in human beings. In human beings it is developed to the extent that it makes it possible to transfer all necessary information on our further actions to us in the nearest or even quite a distant future only by means of sign symbols. We can read a book containing just mere squiggles only, however such a full-blown and colorful pictures are open before us that we forget about everything on earth. Your dog for sure is surprised that its master looks for hours at a strange subject (the book) and does not move, run or make any sounds. And even if you try to explain to it that it is a book the dog will not understand it anyway, because it has not yet “matured”, it does not have second signaling system. Thus, the system with self-training control block containing the first signaling system is an object which can abstract external influences and situations by means of abstract situational prearranged signal. For this purpose it has an analyzer-abstractor of the first order. But it can inform of the presence of such action or situation only at the moment of their occurrence. It may transfer its experience to other systems only with the help of the situational prearranged signal which possibilities are limited. Such block has the “knowledge base” and “base of abstraction” which it accumulates in its brain within the lifespan. In the communities of systems with first signaling system accumulation of personal knowledge is possible, whereas accumulation of social knowledge is impossible because this knowledge is accumulated only in the control block (cerebrum) which possibilities are limited. The system which has self-training control block containing the second signaling system is an object which can abstract external influences and situations by means of abstract sign /symbolic/ prearranged signal. For this purpose it has an analyzer-abstractor of Z-order. It can transfer its experience to other systems by transfer of information to them in the form of conventional signs. Such blocks accumulate “knowledge base” outside its cerebrum in the form of script thanks to the developed “base of abstraction”. It gives an opportunity to absolve from dependence of accumulation of knowledge on the lifespan of an individual subject. In communities of systems with the second signaling system accumulation of social knowledge is possible and it strengthens the accumulation of individual knowledge. In other respects the control block with signaling systems is similar to the self-training control block examined above. It can react to definite external influence and learn to react to new external influence and an external situation, and its reaction is determined by type and number of its SFU. The result of action of the system is also graduated. The number of gradations is determined by the number of executive SFU in the system. It also has the analyzer-correlator, the analyzer-classifier with “knowledge base” and “base of decisions”, the analyzer-informant with the “database”, DPC (with the “Х” informant) and NF (the “Y” informant) which through a stimulator (efferent paths) operate the system. In an inanimate/inorganic nature there are no analogues of systems with control block having signaling systems. Biological analogues of systems with control block containing the first signaling system are all animals with sufficiently developed nervous system in which conditioned reflexes may be developed. As a rule such animals do already have social relations (flocks, herds and other social groups), as signals are transferred from one animal to another. Biological analogue of systems with control block containing the second signaling system is only the human being.

Self-organizing systems. Bogdanov has shown that there exist two modes of formation of systems. According to the first one the system arises at least from two objects of any nature by means of the third entity – connections (synthesis, generation). According to the second one the system is formed at the expense of disintegration (destruction, retrogression/degeneration) of the more complex system that previously existed [6]. Hence, the system may be constructed (arranged) from new elements or restructured (reorganized) at the expense of inclusion of additional elements in its structure or by exclusion from its structure of unnecessary elements. Apparently, there is also a third mode of reorganization of systems – replacement of old or worn out parts for the new ones (structural regeneration), and the fourth mode – changing of connections/bonds between internal elements of the system (functional regeneration). Generation (the first mode of reorganization) is a process of positive entropy (from simple to complex, complexification of systems). New system is formed for the account of expanding the structure of its elements. This process occurs for the account of emergence of additional connections between the elements and consequently requires energy and inflow of substances (new elements). The degeneration (the second mode of reorganization) is a process of negative entropy (from complex to simple, simplification of systems). New system is formed for the account of reduction of compositional structure of its elements. This process releases energy and elements from the structure. Both modes are used for the creation of new systems with the new goals. In the first case complexification of systems takes place, while in the second one their simplification or destruction occurs. Structural regeneration (the third mode of reorganization) is used for the conservation and restoration of the systems’ structure. It is used in the form of metabolism, but at that, the system and its goals remain unchanged. Energy and inflow of substances for the SFU restoration is required for this process. Functional regeneration (the fourth mode of reorganization) is used for the operation of systems as such. The principle of the systems’ functioning resembles generation and degeneration processes. In process of accretion of functions the system includes the next in turn SFU ostensibly building a new, more powerful system with larger number of elements (generation). During the reduction of capacity of functions the system deactivates the next in turn SFU as if it means to build a new system with fewer number of elements (degeneration). But these are all reversible changes of the system arising in response to the external influence which are effected for the account of the change of the condition of its elements and the use of DPC, NF and effectors. At that, the system’s structure kind of alters depending on its goal. New active and passive (reserve) SFU appear in it. This process requires energy and flow of substances for energy recovery, but not necessarily requires a flow of substances for the restoration of SFU. How does the organization (structuring) of system occur? Who makes decision on the organization or reorganization of systems? Who builds control block of the new or reorganized system? Who gives the command, the task for the system? Why is the NF loop built for meeting the given specific condition? Before we try to answer these questions, we will note the following. First, there is a need in the presence of someone or something “interested” in the new quality of the result of action who (or which) will determine this condition (set the goal) and construct the control block. Someone or something “interested” may be the case coupled with natural selection, whereby by way of extensive arbitrary search corresponding combinations of elements and their interactions may emerge that are the most  sustained/lasting in the given conditions of environment. Thus, the environment/medium sets condition and the incident builds the systems under these conditions. At this point we do not consider the conditions in which generation or degeneration occurs and which are associated with redundancy or lack of energy (with positive or negative entropy). We only consider the need and expediency of creation of systems. The more complicated the system is, the more search options should be available and the more time it takes (the law of large numbers). We will note, however, that the goal is set to any systems from the outside, whether it is an incident, a person, natural selection or something else. But we cannot ignore the following very interesting consequence.  Firstly, the survival rate is the main and general goal of any living organism. And as far as the goal is set from the outside, the survival rate is also something set to us from the outside and is not something that stems from our internal inspirations. In other words, the aim to survive is our internal incentive, but someone or something from the outside has once imbedded it in us. And prior to such imbedding it was not “ours”. Secondly, in order to ensure the possibility of building systems with any kind of control block, even the elementary one, the presence of such elements is necessary which quality of results of actions could in principle provide such a possibility. It follows from the conservation law and the law of cause-and-effect limitations that nothing occurs by itself. These elements should have entry points of external influence (necessarily), command entry points (not necessarily for uncontrollable SFU) and exit points of the result of action (necessarily). Exits and entries should have possibility to interact between themselves. This possibility is realized by means of combination of homo-reactivity and hetero-reactivity of elements. Physical homo-reactivity is the ability of an element to produce the same kind of result of action as is the kind of external influence (pressure → pressure, electricity → electricity, etc.). At the same time, characteristics of physical parameters do not vary (10g →10g, 5mV → 5mV, etc.). Homo-reactive elements are transmitters of actions. Physical hetero-reactivity is the ability of an element, in response to external influence of one physical nature, to yield the result of action of other physical nature (pressure → electric pulse frequency, electric current → axis shaft rotation, etc.). Hetero-reactive elements are converters of actions. The elements with physical hetero-reactivity are, for example, all receptors of living organism (which transform the signals of measurable parameters into nerve pulse trains), sensors of measuring devices, levers, shafts, planes, etc. In other words such elements may be any material things of the world around us that satisfy hetero-reactivity condition. Chemical reactions also fall under the subcategory of physical reactions as chemical reactions represent transfer of electrons from one group of atoms to others. Chemistry is a special section of physics. Logic hetero-reactivity is the ability of an element, in response to external influence of one type physical nature, to yield the result of action of the same physical nature (pressure → pressure, electric current → electric current, etc.), but with other characteristics (10g → 100g, 5mA → 0.5mA, 1Hz → 10Hz, 5 impulses → 15 impulses, etc.). Amplifiers, code converters, logic components of electronics are the examples of elements with logic hetero-reactivity. Neurons do not possess physical hetero-reactivity as they can perceive only potentials of action and generate the potentials. But they have logic hetero-reactivity and they can transform frequency and pulse count. They do not transform a physical parameter as such, but its characteristics. Any system consists of executive and operating elements. At the same time any control block of any system itself consists of some kind of parts (elements), so it also falls under the definition of systems. In other words, control block and its parts are specific systems (subsystems) themselves with their goals, and they have their own executive elements and local control blocks operating these executive elements. Compulsory condition for part of them is their ability to hetero-reactivity of one or other sort. The effect of their control action consists only in their relative positioning. Command is entered into the local control block (condition of the task, the goal/objective) and the latter continually watches that the result of action always satisfies the command. At that, the command can be set from the outside by other system external in relation to the given one, or the self-training block may “decide” independently to change the parameters (but not the goal) set by the command. So, the elements of control may be the same as the executive elements. The difference is only in relative positioning. Director of an enterprise is just the same kind of individual as any ordinary engineer. All elements of the system, both executive and controlling, are structured according to a certain scheme specific for each concrete case (for each specific goal), but all of them must have the “exit” point/outlet/, whence the result of action of the given element is produced, and two “entry points” – for external influence and for entry of the command. If the exit points of any elements are connected to the entry points for external influences of other elements, such elements are executive. In this case executive elements are converters of one kind of results of action into the other, because the results of actions of donor systems represent external influence for the recipient systems (executive elements). They (external influences) ostensibly enter the system and exit it being already transformed into the form of new results of action. If exit points of elements are connected to command entry points of other elements, such elements are controlling and represent a part of control block. In such cases the result of action of some systems represents the command for the executive elements, the instruction on how to transform the results of action of donor systems into the results of action of recipient systems. But the law of homogeneity of actions and homogeneous interactivity (homo-reactivity) of the exit-entry connection is invariably observed. If, for example, the result of action of the donor element is pressure, the entry point of external influence (for the command) of the recipient element should be able to react to pressure, or otherwise the interaction between the elements would be impossible.

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